MCAT Psychology and Sociology Terms: Foundational Vocabulary
The Intersection of Biology, Mind, and Society
The MCAT P/S glossary is built upon the biopsychosocial model, a framework that posits that health and illness are determined by a dynamic interaction between biological characteristics, psychological states, and social environments. In an exam context, this means a question about a patient’s depression might require you to identify a biological cause (serotonin depletion), a psychological cause (learned helplessness), or a sociological cause (low socioeconomic status). Understanding this intersection is vital for interpreting passages that describe health outcomes. For instance, the concept of social epidemiology examines how social factors like class or race influence the distribution of health and disease within a population. On the exam, you must be prepared to link a physiological response, such as the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, to a social stressor like workplace discrimination.
Key Distinctions: Micro vs. Macro, Nature vs. Nurture
High-yield performance requires distinguishing between levels of analysis. Microsociology focuses on individual interactions and small group dynamics, such as the face-to-face communication between a doctor and a patient. Conversely, macrosociology analyzes large-scale social structures and institutions, such as the healthcare system or the economy. This distinction is crucial when identifying sociological theories MCAT writers frequently use, such as Symbolic Interactionism (micro) versus Functionalism (macro). Similarly, the nature vs. nurture debate is tested through studies on heritability and environmental influence. You should be familiar with twin studies and adoption studies, which use the heritability coefficient to determine how much of the variation in a trait within a population can be attributed to genetic factors versus environmental triggers.
Biological Bases of Behavior
Neuroanatomy: Key Brain Structures and Their Functions
The MCAT expects candidates to localize specific behaviors to neuroanatomical structures. The limbic system is a primary focus, particularly the amygdala, which processes fear and aggression, and the hippocampus, which is essential for consolidating short-term memory into long-term memory. Damage to the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia, the inability to form new memories. The basal ganglia are critical for coordinating smooth muscle movement and are the primary site of degradation in Parkinson’s disease. In the cerebral cortex, the frontal lobe manages executive functions and impulse control via the prefrontal cortex. A classic exam scenario involves damage to Broca’s area (left frontal lobe), resulting in expressive aphasia, or Wernicke’s area (left temporal lobe), resulting in receptive aphasia where speech is fluent but nonsensical.
Neurotransmitters and Hormones: Roles in Behavior and Emotion
Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers of the nervous system, and their dysregulation is a frequent topic in psychological disorders MCAT questions. Dopamine is central to the reward pathway (nucleus accumbens) and motor control; the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia suggests that overactive dopamine signaling contributes to positive symptoms like hallucinations. Serotonin regulates mood, sleep, and appetite, with low levels often linked to depressive disorders. GABA serves as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, while glutamate is the primary excitatory one. Hormonally, the exam focuses on the endocrine system, specifically the role of cortisol in the long-term stress response and epinephrine/norepinephrine in the acute sympathetic "fight or flight" response. Understanding the difference between a neurotransmitter (synaptic release) and a hormone (bloodstream release) is essential for answering questions on signaling speed and duration.
Sensory Processing and Perception Terminology
Percpetion begins with transduction, the conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals. The MCAT tests the distinction between bottom-up processing (data-driven, starting with the stimulus) and top-down processing (concept-driven, influenced by prior knowledge). A key concept is Weber’s Law, which states that the just noticeable difference (JND) is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus ($$\Delta I / I = k$$). For example, if you can feel the difference between 10lb and 11lb, you would need a 2lb difference to notice a change from 20lb. Additionally, Signal Detection Theory explains how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, involving hits, misses, false alarms, and correct rejections. You must also master Gestalt principles, such as proximity, similarity, and closure, which describe how the brain organizes fragmented sensory input into a coherent whole.
Cognition, Consciousness, and Memory
Stages of Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Within the memory and cognition MCAT vocabulary, the Atkinson-Shiffrin model is foundational. It traces information from sensory memory (iconic and echoic) to short-term/working memory, and finally to long-term memory. Working memory, managed by the central executive, has a limited capacity (often cited as 7 ± 2 items). Long-term memory is divided into explicit (declarative) memory, which includes episodic and semantic facts, and implicit (non-declarative) memory, which covers procedural skills and priming. Retrieval can be hindered by interference: proactive interference occurs when old information prevents the learning of new info, while retroactive interference occurs when new information causes you to forget old info. Candidates should also understand the spacing effect, which demonstrates that information is better retained when learning is spread out over time rather than "crammed."
Cognitive Biases and Heuristics
Humans often use heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to make decisions efficiently. The availability heuristic involves judging the frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fearing a plane crash because of recent news coverage). The representativeness heuristic involves categorizing items based on how well they fit a prototype or stereotype. These can lead to cognitive biases, such as the confirmation bias, where individuals seek out information that supports their existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. Another high-yield term is belief perseverance, the tendency to stick to initial beliefs even after they have been discredited. In a medical context, these biases can lead to diagnostic errors, making them a favorite topic for MCAT passage-based questions regarding clinical reasoning.
Theories of Consciousness and Sleep Stages
Consciousness is categorized by different states of alertness, measured via Electroencephalogram (EEG) waves. Alertness is characterized by beta waves, while relaxed wakefulness shows alpha waves. Sleep progresses through four stages: Stage 1 (theta waves), Stage 2 (theta waves with sleep spindles and K-complexes), and Stages 3/4 (delta waves, known as slow-wave sleep). REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is when most dreaming occurs and is characterized by beta-like waves and muscular paralysis, often called paradoxical sleep. The circadian rhythm, regulated by melatonin from the pineal gland and triggered by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus, governs the sleep-wake cycle. Understanding these cycles is critical for questions involving shift work, sleep deprivation, and their subsequent effects on cognitive performance and physiological health.
Learning, Motivation, and Emotion
Behavioral Learning Theories: Conditioning Paradigms
Classical conditioning, pioneered by Pavlov, involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Key terms include extinction, spontaneous recovery, and stimulus generalization. In contrast, operant conditioning (Skinner) focuses on how consequences shape behavior. You must distinguish between reinforcement (increasing behavior) and punishment (decreasing behavior). Positive means adding a stimulus, while negative means removing one. For example, negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus (like an alarm) to increase a behavior (waking up). The MCAT frequently tests schedules of reinforcement, noting that variable-ratio schedules (like a slot machine) are the most resistant to extinction and produce the highest response rates.
Cognitive and Social Learning Models
Moving beyond simple behaviorism, Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the role of observation and imitation. Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children can learn behaviors simply by watching others, a process known as observational learning. This process is mediated by mirror neurons in the brain, which fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else doing it. Another critical concept is latent learning, where learning occurs without immediate reinforcement but is demonstrated later when an incentive is provided. In the context of the MCAT, these models explain how medical students acquire clinical skills not just through textbooks, but by shadowing residents and attending physicians, internalizing complex professional behaviors through social modeling.
Theories of Motivation and Emotional Expression
Motivation theories explain the "why" behind behavior. Drive Reduction Theory suggests that physiological needs (like hunger) create an aroused state (drive) that motivates an individual to satisfy the need and return to homeostasis. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs prioritizes basic physiological requirements before moving toward self-actualization. Regarding emotion, the MCAT requires mastery of three major theories: the James-Lange theory (physiological arousal precedes the emotion), the Cannon-Bard theory (arousal and emotion occur simultaneously), and the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory (arousal occurs, followed by a cognitive appraisal/labeling, which then determines the emotion). Understanding these sequences is essential for interpreting experimental data where physiological markers and subjective reports of emotion are compared.
Identity, Personality, and Psychological Disorders
Theories of Personality Development
Personality is explored through several lenses. The psychoanalytic perspective (Freud) emphasizes the unconscious mind and the conflict between the id, ego, and superego. Freud’s psychosexual stages and Erikson’s psychosocial stages provide frameworks for how identity is formed across the lifespan. The humanistic perspective (Carl Rogers) focuses on the self-concept and the drive toward self-actualization, emphasizing unconditional positive regard. The trait perspective seeks to describe personality through stable characteristics, such as the Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. On the exam, you may be asked to predict how an individual with high neuroticism might react to a stressful clinical scenario compared to one with high conscientiousness.
Social Identity: Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Attribution
MCAT identity and social structure terms focus on how we define ourselves and others. Self-concept is the sum of all phrases used to describe the self, while self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations. Social Identity Theory suggests that a person’s self-image is partially derived from their group memberships. When explaining the behavior of others, we often fall victim to the Fundamental Attribution Error, which is the tendency to overestimate personality (dispositional) factors and underestimate situational factors. Conversely, the self-serving bias leads us to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external ones. These concepts are frequently applied in passages discussing how physicians perceive patients from different cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds.
Overview of Major Psychological Disorders and Treatments
The MCAT focuses on the biological and symptomatic presentation of disorders. Schizophrenia is characterized by positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions) and negative symptoms (flat affect, avolition), often treated with neuroleptics (antipsychotics) that block dopamine receptors. Depressive disorders are often explained via the monoamine hypothesis, suggesting a deficiency in serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine. Anxiety disorders, including OCD and PTSD, involve hyperactivation of the sympathetic nervous system and the amygdala. Personality disorders are categorized into three clusters: Cluster A (odd/eccentric), Cluster B (dramatic/emotional, such as Borderline or Antisocial), and Cluster C (anxious/fearful). You should understand that these are ego-syntonic, meaning the individual perceives their behavior as normal, unlike ego-dystonic disorders like depression.
Social Processes, Attitudes, and Interactions
Social Perception: Attribution, Persuasion, and Attitude Change
Attitudes consist of three components: affective (emotional), behavioral, and cognitive (the ABC model). The Elaboration Likelihood Model describes two routes to persuasion: the central route, which focuses on the logic and strength of the argument, and the peripheral route, which relies on superficial cues like the speaker’s attractiveness or celebrity status. Central route processing leads to more enduring attitude change. Another critical concept is cognitive dissonance, the mental discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting beliefs or performing an action that contradicts one's beliefs. To reduce this tension, individuals often change their attitudes to align with their behavior. On the MCAT, this might be applied to a smoker who justifies their habit by downplaying the risks of cancer.
Individual behavior changes significantly within a group. Social facilitation occurs when the presence of others improves performance on simple tasks but hinders performance on complex ones (Yerkes-Dodson Law). Social loafing is the tendency to put in less effort when working in a group. Deindividuation involves a loss of self-awareness in large crowds, often leading to uncharacteristic behavior. Critical for the exam are conformity (Asch’s line studies) and obedience (Milgram’s shock experiments). You must also distinguish between group polarization, where group discussion strengthens the average inclination of group members, and groupthink, where the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives, often leading to disastrous outcomes in medical or political settings.
Aggression, Altruism, and Interpersonal Attraction
Social interactions are governed by complex psychological triggers. Aggression is influenced by the frustration-aggression principle, which states that being blocked from a goal creates anger. Altruism is often explained through kin selection (helping relatives) or reciprocal altruism (helping those who might help us later). Interpersonal attraction is dictated by factors such as the mere exposure effect (preferring things we see frequently), physical attractiveness, and similarity. In a clinical context, the halo effect can occur when a physician’s overall positive impression of a patient (perhaps because they are well-spoken) leads them to overlook potential symptoms or non-compliance, demonstrating how social psychological principles directly impact healthcare delivery and patient outcomes.
Social Structures, Stratification, and Institutions
Social Class, Power, and Social Mobility
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes based on wealth, power, and prestige. The MCAT tests your understanding of social mobility, which can be intergenerational (between generations) or intragenerational (within a lifetime). A meritocracy is a society where advancement is based solely on individual ability and effort, though in reality, social reproduction—the tendency for social class to be inherited—is more common. Cultural capital (knowledge, skills, education) and social capital (networks and connections) are resources that individuals use to gain status. You must understand that low social standing often correlates with environmental injustice, where marginalized communities are disproportionately exposed to environmental hazards, leading to poorer health outcomes.
The Functions of Major Social Institutions (Family, Education, Religion)
Social institutions are stable systems of social patterns that guide behavior. Functionalism views these institutions as necessary components that maintain social stability. For example, the education system has manifest functions (teaching literacy) and latent functions (providing childcare or social networking). However, Conflict Theory (Marx) would argue that the education system reinforces social inequalities through the hidden curriculum—the unofficial lessons about norms and values that favor the elite. Other institutions include the family, religion, and the healthcare system. The medicalization of society is a high-yield concept where human conditions (like addiction or ADHD) come to be defined and treated as medical conditions, shifting the responsibility from the individual to the medical professional.
Demographics: Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Sexuality
Demographic shifts are analyzed using the Demographic Transition Model, which describes the transition from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates as a country industrializes. You must distinguish between race (socially constructed based on physical traits) and ethnicity (socially constructed based on cultural factors). Gender is a social construct, distinct from biological sex. The MCAT also explores intersectionality, the idea that various social identities (race, class, gender) overlap to create unique modes of discrimination. For example, a black woman may experience healthcare disparities differently than a white woman or a black man. Understanding these demographic variables is essential for interpreting public health data and recognizing the systemic barriers that contribute to health inequalities.
Applying P/S Terms to MCAT Passages and Questions
Identifying Theoretical Frameworks in Scenarios
Success on the MCAT often hinges on identifying which sociological or psychological lens a passage is using. If a passage discusses how a patient’s identity is shaped by their interactions with a doctor, it is likely using Symbolic Interactionism. If it discusses how a hospital maintains the stability of a city, it is likely Functionalism. If it focuses on the power struggle between administrators and nurses over wages, it is Conflict Theory. Social Constructionism is another frequent framework, suggesting that things like "health" or "illness" are not objective realities but are defined by society. Being able to quickly label a scenario with the correct theoretical framework allows you to predict the "correct" answer based on that theory’s specific assumptions and logic.
Analyzing Research Design in Social Science Studies
A significant portion of the P/S section involves evaluating research. You must distinguish between experimental designs (where variables are manipulated to determine causality) and observational designs (like cross-sectional, case-control, or longitudinal studies). Key metrics include internal validity (how well the study establishes a causal relationship) and external validity (generalizability to the real world). You should also be alert for confounding variables that might provide an alternative explanation for the results. Understanding the p-value (statistical significance) and the null hypothesis is essential. If a study on a new therapy has a $p < 0.05$, the results are considered statistically significant, meaning the observed effect is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone.
Connecting Concepts to Health and Healthcare Disparities
The ultimate goal of the P/S section is to apply these terms to medicine. Social determinants of health include the conditions in which people are born, grow, and live. The sick role (Talcott Parsons) describes the rights and obligations of the ill: they are exempt from normal social roles but have an obligation to seek help and get well. However, this model is often criticized for not applying to chronic illnesses. You should also be familiar with healthcare disparities, such as the fact that low-income individuals often have less access to preventative care and higher rates of chronic disease. By connecting sociological theories MCAT prep has taught you to these real-world disparities, you can better navigate passages that require you to propose interventions or explain the underlying causes of health inequality in a given population.