Essential Weight Terms: BEW, OEW, Payload, ZFW, TOW
Success on the FAA dispatcher exam begins with a rigorous command of weight definitions. Basic Empty Weight (BEW) serves as the foundation, encompassing the airframe, engines, and all fixed equipment, including unusable fuel and full operating fluids like hydraulic fluid and oil. When a dispatcher adds the flight crew, cabin crew, and their baggage, along with pantry items and emergency equipment, the figure becomes the Operating Empty Weight (OEW). This is the baseline from which all mission-specific calculations begin.
Payload is the revenue-generating portion of the aircraft, consisting of passengers, their checked baggage, and cargo. The sum of OEW and Payload results in the Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW). This is a critical structural limit because all weight added beyond this point must be fuel, which is typically stored in the wings. The fuel provides a relieving wing-bending moment that counters the upward aerodynamic lift. Finally, adding the takeoff fuel to the ZFW yields the Takeoff Weight (TOW). Candidates must be able to move fluidly between these definitions, as exam questions often provide one value and require the derivation of others to determine if the aircraft meets legal dispatch requirements.
Understanding Datum, Arm, Moment, and Index
Every weight item on an aircraft exerts a rotational force around a specific reference point known as the datum. The distance from this datum to the item's center of mass is the arm, usually measured in inches. The fundamental formula for all weight and balance problems is Weight x Arm = Moment. This product represents the leverage the weight exerts on the airframe. Because total moments in large transport category aircraft can reach into the millions, the FAA uses a simplified CG moment index dispatcher tool to make numbers manageable.
An index is simply a moment divided by a reduction factor (such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000) and sometimes adjusted by a constant to eliminate negative numbers. For example, a moment of 5,400,000 inch-pounds might be converted to an index of 540.0. On the written exam, you will frequently be required to convert raw moments into index units using a specific formula provided in the supplemental figures. Understanding this scaling is vital for accurately plotting points on a center of gravity envelope, where the horizontal axis often represents the index rather than the raw moment.
Dispatchers must differentiate between structural limits and performance-limited weights. Structural limits, such as Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) and Maximum Landing Weight (MLW), are fixed values determined by the airframe manufacturer to prevent mechanical failure. However, a flight is often restricted by lower performance limits. For instance, a short runway or high density altitude might result in a Runway Limited Takeoff Weight that is significantly lower than the structural MTOW.
Another critical constraint is the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW). This limit ensures that the weight in the fuselage (payload and OEW) does not exceed the structural strength of the wing spars when the wings are producing lift but contain no fuel to offset the stress. On the exam, the "allowable takeoff weight" is always the lowest of the following three: the structural MTOW, the performance-limited TOW (based on climb or runway length), or the MZFW plus the actual takeoff fuel. Failing to identify the most restrictive limit is a common trap in multi-part calculation questions.
Step-by-Step Weight and Balance Calculation Process
Creating a Loading Schedule or Weight & Balance Manifest
Load planning for dispatchers involves a systematic approach to tallying every mass entering the aircraft. This process starts with the OEW and its corresponding moment. The dispatcher then layers on the weight of passengers (using either actual weights or FAA-approved standard average weights), baggage in specific pits, and cargo. Each of these "zones" has a specific arm assigned to it.
On the exam, you may be given a loading manifest with several empty slots. You must fill these by multiplying the weight in each compartment by its designated arm to find the moment. It is essential to double-check whether the question uses "inches aft of datum" or "inches forward of datum," as forward positions often require a negative sign in the calculation. The final manifest must show a clear progression from OEW to ZFW, and finally to the Ramp Weight (TOW plus taxi fuel), ensuring that at no point do the cumulative totals exceed the aircraft’s structural capabilities.
Calculating Individual and Total Moments
Once individual weights and arms are identified, the dispatcher calculates the moment for each station. The exam often tests the ability to handle aircraft weight and balance calculations where the arm is not explicitly stated but must be found on a chart. For example, a cargo hold might have an arm that changes depending on how the pallets are distributed.
To find the Total Moment, you sum the moments of the OEW, payload, and fuel. It is a common error to sum the arms; remember that arms are never additive. You only sum the weights and the moments. If the exam provides an index instead of a moment, you must ensure all values are converted to the same unit before summation. If an item is removed from the aircraft, its weight and moment must be subtracted from the totals. This mathematical rigor ensures that the dispatcher maintains a precise "paper trail" of the aircraft's rotational balance before the flight is authorized.
Determining the Loaded Center of Gravity (CG)
After calculating the total weight and the total moment, the final step in the dispatch sequence is finding the Center of Gravity (CG). The formula is Total Moment / Total Weight = CG Arm. This resulting value represents the point, in inches from the datum, where the aircraft would balance if suspended. For transport category aircraft, this is often expressed as a percentage of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (% MAC).
To convert an inch-based CG to % MAC, use the formula: ((CG - LEMAC) / MAC) x 100, where LEMAC is the Leading Edge of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord. The exam will require you to verify that this percentage falls within the forward and aft limits defined in the Type Certificate Data Sheet or the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM). A CG that is too far forward increases stall speed and requires more nose-up trim (increasing drag), while a CG too far aft can lead to pitch instability and difficulty in stall recovery.
Using Load Adjustment Graphs and Tables
Interpreting Index or Moment-Limits Envelopes
The FAA dispatcher exam weight and balance section frequently utilizes a "Center of Gravity Envelope" graph. This chart features weight on the vertical axis and either the CG Arm or the Index on the horizontal axis. The envelope is a geometric shape representing the safe operating range. Any point falling outside these lines—whether to the left (too far forward), right (too far aft), or above (overweight)—renders the aircraft unairworthy for dispatch.
Interpretative skills are tested by asking the candidate to plot the ZFW and the TOW on the same graph. Because fuel is consumed during flight, the CG "moves" along a path as the weight decreases. A flight that begins within limits but is projected to end with a CG outside the landing envelope due to fuel burn cannot be legally dispatched. You must be able to read these coordinates precisely, often down to a fraction of an index unit, to select the correct answer among several closely grouped options.
Calculating the Effect of Adding, Removing, or Moving Load
When a last-minute change occurs—such as a group of passengers being re-seated or cargo being removed—the dispatcher must quickly calculate the new CG without restarting the entire manifest. To find the new CG after a weight change, use the formula: (Existing Total Moment ± Change in Moment) / New Total Weight. The "Change in Moment" is the weight added or removed multiplied by the arm of the specific compartment affected.
This is a high-frequency exam topic. You might be asked: "If 500 lbs is removed from Cargo Pit 3 (Arm 800), what is the new CG?" If the original weight was 150,000 lbs and the original moment was 120,000,000, the new moment is 120,000,000 - (500 x 800) = 119,600,000. The new weight is 149,500 lbs. Dividing the new moment by the new weight gives the updated CG arm. This logic prevents the need for a full recalculation of the OEW and fuel, saving critical time during the exam.
Finding the CG Shift from a Weight Redistribution
Moving weight within the aircraft changes the CG position without changing the total weight. This is governed by the Weight Shift Formula: (Weight Moved / Total Weight) = (Change in CG / Distance Moved). This can be rearranged to find the shift: Change in CG = (Weight Moved x Distance Moved) / Total Weight.
Exam questions often ask how many inches the CG will move if 1,000 lbs is shifted from the forward cargo hold to the aft cargo hold. If the distance between the holds is 500 inches and the aircraft weighs 100,000 lbs, the shift is (1,000 x 500) / 100,000 = 5 inches. If the weight moved aft, the new CG is the old CG plus 5 inches. This formula is a powerful shortcut for solving "correction" problems where you must move a specific amount of payload to bring an out-of-limits aircraft back into the allowable envelope.
Maximum Takeoff Weight vs. Runway and Climbs Limits
In the context of the FAA exam, takeoff weight limitations are rarely just about the structural strength of the landing gear. Dispatchers must evaluate the Climb Limited Takeoff Weight, which ensures the aircraft can maintain a specific gradient (e.g., 2.4% for two-engine aircraft) following an engine failure at $V_1$. This is a regulatory requirement under 14 CFR Part 121.
Additionally, the Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) and Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) must be checked. If the aircraft is too heavy to stop on the remaining runway after a rejected takeoff, or too heavy to clear an obstacle at the end of the runway, the TOW must be reduced. On the written test, you will often be given a table of temperatures and altitudes and asked to find the maximum weight that satisfies both the climb and runway requirements. The answer is always the most restrictive (lowest) value.
Landing Weight and Landing Distance Calculations
The Maximum Landing Weight (MLW) is primarily a structural limit designed to protect the airframe from the stresses of impact. However, dispatchers must also calculate the Landing Distance Required. Under Part 121, a turbojet aircraft must be able to land and come to a complete stop within 60% of the effective length of the runway from a point 50 feet above the threshold.
If the destination runway is short or contaminated with rain or ice, the performance-limited landing weight may be much lower than the structural MLW. The exam tests this by providing a "Landing Weight" and asking if the aircraft can legally land at a specific airport given current weather. You must apply the 60% rule (or the 115% factor for wet runways) to the landing distance data to determine the maximum allowable weight for that arrival. If the projected landing weight (TOW minus trip fuel) exceeds this value, you must reduce the takeoff weight at the departure point.
Zero Fuel Weight as a Payload Constraint
The zero fuel weight calculation is the primary method for determining the maximum payload an aircraft can carry on a specific leg. Since ZFW = OEW + Payload, the maximum payload is simply MZFW - OEW. However, this is only true if the resulting takeoff weight (ZFW + Fuel) does not exceed the MTOW.
On the exam, you may encounter a scenario where the aircraft has a high MZFW but a low MTOW due to a long-range fuel requirement. In this case, the payload is limited by the MTOW minus the fuel and OEW. A dispatcher must perform a "double-check": first calculate payload based on MZFW, then calculate it based on MTOW, and finally based on MLW (adding back the trip fuel). The lowest payload figure is the legal limit. This multi-step verification process is a hallmark of advanced dispatcher logic.
Fuel Planning and Its Impact on Weight and Balance
Incorporating Taxi, Trip, Contingency, Alternate, and Final Reserve Fuel
Fuel is a variable weight that significantly impacts the balance of the aircraft. Dispatchers must account for several types of fuel, each with a specific purpose. Taxi fuel is burned before takeoff and is included in the Ramp Weight but not the Takeoff Weight. Trip fuel is the amount required to fly from departure to destination. Contingency fuel provides a buffer for unforeseen delays, while Alternate fuel covers the flight to the furthest listed alternate airport. Finally, Final Reserve fuel (usually 30–45 minutes) is the minimum fuel required to be on board upon landing.
For the exam, you must sum these components to find the Total Fuel Load. This total is then used to calculate the Ramp Weight and the TOW. A critical detail is that only the fuel intended to be burned (Taxi + Trip) reduces the weight during the flight. The remaining "reserve" fuel stays on the aircraft and must be included in the landing weight calculation. Misidentifying which fuel stays and which fuel goes is a frequent cause of errors in landing weight problems.
Accounting for Fuel Burn and CG Shift During Flight
As fuel is consumed, the aircraft's CG typically moves. In many transport aircraft, fuel is stored in wing tanks and a center wing tank. The center tank is usually emptied first. Because the center tank's arm is different from the wing tanks' arm, the CG will shift as the fuel level drops. This is known as the fuel burn sequence.
Exam questions may provide a "Fuel Usage Chart" showing how the index changes per 1,000 lbs of fuel burned. You must apply this change to the Takeoff CG to find the Landing CG. If the fuel burn moves the CG aft, the aircraft becomes more longitudinaly unstable as the flight progresses. Dispatchers must ensure that the CG remains within the "Landing Envelope" even if the flight arrives with only the minimum required reserve fuel. This ensures the pilots have sufficient elevator authority for the flare and touchdown.
Ensuring Landing Weight Stays Within Limits
The final check in the dispatch release is the Estimated Landing Weight (ELW). The formula is TOW - Trip Fuel = ELW. This value must be lower than the structural MLW and the performance-limited landing weight for the destination airport. If the ELW is too high, the dispatcher has two choices: reduce the payload or, if the flight is short, reduce the takeoff fuel (though this is rarely an option due to reserve requirements).
In some exam scenarios, you are given a "Tankering" situation where extra fuel is carried to avoid high fuel prices at the destination. This increases the landing weight. You must calculate whether the tankered fuel pushes the aircraft over its MLW. If it does, the dispatch is illegal. This requires a precise understanding of the relationship between fuel burn, weight limits, and the economic goals of the airline, all while prioritizing the safety of the flight.
Practical Exam-Style Calculation Problems
Solving for Maximum Allowable Payload
A typical exam problem provides the following: OEW 100,000 lbs, MTOW 175,000 lbs, MLW 145,000 lbs, MZFW 135,000 lbs, and Trip Fuel 20,000 lbs. To find the Maximum Allowable Payload, you must calculate the limit for each constraint. Based on MZFW: 135,000 - 100,000 = 35,000 lbs. Based on MLW: (145,000 + 20,000) - 100,000 - 20,000 (reserve) = 25,000 lbs (assuming 20k is total fuel).
More simply, the payload is limited by:
- MZFW - OEW
- MTOW - OEW - Takeoff Fuel
- MLW - OEW - Reserve Fuel
You must perform all three subtractions. The smallest result is the maximum payload you can authorize. The exam often includes "filler" data like taxi fuel or passenger names to distract from these core structural subtractions. Focus on the maximum values (the "Maxes") to find the ceiling for the payload.
Determining if a Given Load is Within CG Limits
You may be presented with a loaded aircraft: Total Weight 160,000 lbs and Total Moment 128,000,000 lb-in. The exam asks if this is within limits. First, calculate the CG: 128,000,000 / 160,000 = 800 inches. Then, you must consult a provided CG Envelope or table.
If the table states that at 160,000 lbs, the forward limit is 790 inches and the aft limit is 810 inches, the aircraft is within limits. However, the question might then ask about the Landing CG. If 30,000 lbs of fuel is burned from a tank at arm 750, you must calculate the new moment: 128,000,000 - (30,000 x 750) = 105,500,000. New weight is 130,000 lbs. New CG: 105,500,000 / 130,000 = 811.5 inches. In this case, the aircraft is within limits for takeoff but will be out of limits (aft) upon landing. The correct exam answer would be that the load is unacceptable for dispatch.
Correcting an Out-of-Limit CG by Adjusting Load or Fuel
If a calculation shows the CG is 2 inches too far aft, the exam may ask how much weight must be moved from the aft hold (Arm 900) to the forward hold (Arm 400) to correct it. Using the weight shift formula: Weight to Move = (Total Weight x Required CG Change) / Distance Moved.
If the aircraft weighs 150,000 lbs and needs a 2-inch forward shift, and the distance between holds is 500 inches: (150,000 x 2) / 500 = 600 lbs. Moving 600 lbs forward would move the CG exactly 2 inches. These problems require careful attention to the direction of the shift. Moving weight forward always decreases the arm (moves CG forward), while moving weight aft increases the arm. On the dispatcher written exam, being able to execute this formula quickly allows you to solve "re-ballasting" questions without having to re-calculate the entire weight and balance manifest.