FAA Airman Knowledge Navigation and Charts Review: Core Skills
Chart Types: Sectional, TAC, and Chart Supplement
The primary tool for VFR navigation is the Sectional Chart, a 1:500,000 scale map designed to provide the necessary visual and radio navigation data for slow to medium-speed aircraft. On the FAA exam, you will frequently be asked to locate specific airports or landmarks using a grid of latitude and longitude. It is essential to remember that each degree of latitude is divided into 60 minutes, and the tick marks on the lines of longitude and latitude represent one minute each. For areas of high-density traffic, the Terminal Area Chart (TAC) provides a zoomed-in scale of 1:250,000. These are used primarily for navigating Class B airspace, where the increased detail helps pilots avoid inadvertent incursions into restricted sectors.
Beyond the charts themselves, the Chart Supplement (formerly the Airport/Facility Directory) serves as the definitive textual reference. The exam tests your ability to extract critical data from these entries, such as the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF), runway lengths, and lighting systems. A common trap in the knowledge test involves identifying specific remarks, such as "Right Traffic" or specific hours of operation for a control tower. Understanding the legend of the Chart Supplement is just as vital as reading the symbols on the sectional, as it provides the context required to apply the visual data to a safe landing or departure.
Essential Navigation Methods: Pilotage vs. Dead Reckoning
The FAA distinguishes between two primary forms of non-electronic navigation: pilotage and dead reckoning. Pilotage is the process of navigating by visual reference to landmarks. On the written exam, this is often tested through questions that ask you to identify a specific landmark, such as a bridge, race track, or power line, along a proposed course. You must be able to correlate the symbols on the paper chart with the descriptions provided in the question stem. The exam often uses "checkpoints" to verify that a pilot can maintain a course without relying solely on instruments.
Dead reckoning, conversely, is the navigation method based on calculations of time, speed, distance, and direction. This involves using a known starting point and applying a groundspeed and heading to estimate a future position. The dead reckoning and pilotage written exam questions usually combine these methods. For instance, you might be given a groundspeed and asked how long it will take to reach a visual landmark identified through pilotage. The core principle here is the mathematical relationship: Distance = Speed × Time. Candidates must be comfortable manipulating this formula to find any of the three variables, often while accounting for the effects of wind, which can significantly alter the aircraft's actual path over the ground compared to its heading through the air.
The Role of the E6B Flight Computer
While digital calculators are permitted, the conceptual framework of the FAA exam is built around the E6B flight computer. This analog tool is used to solve the "wind triangle," a geometric representation of how wind affects the aircraft's track. The exam requires you to use the circular slide rule side for calculations involving fuel consumption, time en route, and true airspeed conversions. For example, a typical question might provide a True Airspeed (TAS) and a wind vector, requiring you to find the Wind Correction Angle (WCA) and the resulting groundspeed.
On the wind face of the E6B, you must be proficient in the "wind dot" method. This involves marking the wind direction and velocity, then sliding the grid to align your true course. The resulting offset indicates how many degrees left or right you must steer to maintain your intended track. Scoring high on these sections requires precision; being off by just a few degrees or knots can lead to selecting the wrong multiple-choice answer. The FAA designs these questions with distractors that represent common mistakes, such as failing to subtract a tailwind or incorrectly applying magnetic variation.
Decoding the VFR Sectional Chart
Airspace Boundaries and Classification Symbols
Understanding the airspace on sectional charts study materials is perhaps the most heavily weighted portion of the navigation section. Each class of airspace has a unique visual signature. Class B airspace is denoted by solid blue lines, often resembling an upside-down wedding cake. Class C is shown with solid magenta lines, and Class D is marked by dashed blue lines. The exam frequently asks for the "floor" or "ceiling" of a specific piece of airspace. These are indicated by fractions, such as 70/20, meaning the airspace extends from 2,000 feet Mean Sea Level (MSL) up to 7,000 feet MSL. If a number is preceded by a minus sign, it means the airspace extends up to, but not including, that altitude.
Furthermore, the exam tests your knowledge of the different shading used for Class E airspace. A faded magenta border indicates that Class E begins at 700 feet Above Ground Level (AGL), whereas a faded blue border (rarely seen on modern sectionals but still tested) or the absence of a border indicates it begins at 1,200 feet AGL. Within these boundaries, specific VFR Weather Minimums apply. You must know, for instance, that in Class G airspace during the day below 1,200 feet AGL, you only need 1 statute mile of visibility and must remain clear of clouds. In contrast, Class E below 10,000 feet MSL requires 3 miles of visibility and a specific distance from clouds (500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal).
Airport Data, Runways, and Communication Frequencies
Every airport on a sectional chart is accompanied by a data block that provides essential information for the pilot. The sectional chart symbols test guide emphasizes the ability to read these blocks accurately. The airport name is followed by the identifier, the elevation above sea level, and the longest runway length in hundreds of feet. For example, "45 L 60" indicates an airport at 450 feet MSL with a 6,000-foot runway that has lighting. If the airport symbol is blue, it has an operating control tower; if it is magenta, it is non-towered.
Communication is a vital part of navigation. You must identify the correct frequency for the Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) or Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) to receive weather updates. Tower frequencies are listed following the airport identifier, often preceded by the letters "CT." If a small star appears next to the tower frequency, it indicates the tower operates part-time. In such cases, the tower frequency usually reverts to a CTAF when the tower is closed. The exam will challenge you to determine which frequency to use for initial contact when approaching a specific airport from a distance, requiring an understanding of the relationship between the chart symbols and the radio equipment in the cockpit.
Terrain, Obstructions, and Landmark Identification
To ensure obstacle clearance, sectional charts include Maximum Elevation Figures (MEF). These are the large, bold numbers found in each quadrangle of the chart, representing the highest point (terrain or obstacle) in that area, rounded up and with an added safety buffer. For example, an MEF of 4^5 means the highest feature is approximately 4,500 feet MSL. The exam may ask you to determine the minimum altitude required to clear all obstacles in a specific area by a certain margin.
Obstructions like radio towers are depicted with specific symbols: a small conical shape for towers under 1,000 feet AGL and a larger, more jagged shape for those 1,000 feet AGL and higher. If the symbol has "lightning bolts" at the top, it is a high-intensity lighted obstruction. You must also be able to identify Prohibited, Restricted, and Warning Areas. These are marked with blue hatched borders and labeled with a letter and a number (e.g., P-40 or R-2501). The exam will ask about the legality of flying through these areas; while Prohibited areas are off-limits, Restricted areas require permission from the controlling agency when active. This information is found in the margin of the sectional chart, which you must be able to reference during the test.
Radio Navigation: VOR and ADF
Understanding VOR Radials and TO/FROM Indication
VOR and GPS navigation questions FAA examiners include often center on the Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) system. A VOR station broadcasts 360 radials, all oriented to Magnetic North. It is crucial to remember that a radial is always a "from" indication—it is a line extending outward from the station. If you are on the 180-degree radial, you are south of the station. The aircraft’s equipment includes an Omnibearing Selector (OBS) which allows the pilot to select a specific course.
The TO/FROM indicator on the VOR head does not tell you if the aircraft is physically moving toward or away from the station; rather, it indicates whether the course you have selected on the OBS will take you toward or away from the station. If you select 360 on the OBS and you are south of the station, you will see a "TO" flag. If you keep 360 selected but fly past the station to the north, the flag will flip to "FROM." Understanding this relationship is a core competency tested through various scenarios where you must determine the aircraft's position based on a depicted VOR instrument.
Interpreting the VOR Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)
The Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) is the needle that moves left or right to show how far off-course the aircraft is. Each dot on the CDI scale typically represents 2 degrees of deviation. If the needle is deflected to the left, the selected course is to the left of the aircraft's current position. However, this is only intuitive if the aircraft's heading matches the selected OBS course. If you are flying a heading of 180 degrees but have 360 degrees selected on the OBS (known as "reverse sensing"), the needle will move in the opposite direction of the required correction.
FAA questions often provide a graphic of a CDI and ask, "What is the aircraft's position relative to the station?" To solve this, first look at the TO/FROM flag to see which hemisphere the aircraft is in relative to the selected course. Then, look at the needle deflection to determine which side of the radial the aircraft occupies. For example, if the OBS is set to 090, the flag says "FROM," and the needle is deflected to the right, the aircraft is south of the 090 radial (on approximately the 100-degree radial). This logic is essential for the FAA Airman Knowledge navigation and charts review.
Basic ADF Orientation and Relative Bearing
While increasingly rare in modern cockpits, the Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) and its associated Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) are still featured on the FAA knowledge test. The ADF needle points directly to the station. The relationship between the aircraft's heading and the station is defined by the formula: Magnetic Heading (MH) + Relative Bearing (RB) = Magnetic Bearing (MB) to the station.
A Relative Bearing is the number of degrees measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft to the station. If the needle points to the 3 o'clock position, the RB is 090. If your MH is 010 and the RB is 090, your MB to the station is 100. The exam tests your ability to use this formula to solve for any of the three variables. One common question type involves a Fixed-Card ADF, where the 0-degree mark is always at the top of the instrument. You must mentally overlay the aircraft's current heading onto the instrument to determine the actual magnetic bearing to or from the NDB station.
GPS and Modern Navigation Systems
GPS Waypoints, Databases, and Direct-To Navigation
Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation has revolutionized flight, but it introduces its own set of technical requirements for the FAA exam. Pilots must understand that GPS provides Area Navigation (RNAV) capability, allowing flight between any two points on earth without relying on ground-based stations. A Waypoint is a predetermined geographical position used for route definition. The FAA focuses on the pilot's responsibility to ensure the GPS database is current. For VFR flight, the database must be up to date for certain operations, though it is not strictly required for basic situational awareness.
The "Direct-To" function is a fundamental feature of aviation GPS. It calculates a Great Circle track from the aircraft's current position to a selected waypoint. The exam may ask about the limitations of this system, such as the fact that GPS-derived altitude is not a substitute for a barometric altimeter. Additionally, you must be aware of Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM). RAIM is a technology that allows the GPS receiver to verify the integrity of the signals it receives from the satellite constellation. If RAIM is lost, the GPS may not provide the required accuracy, and the pilot must transition to an alternative form of navigation.
Panel-Mounted GPS for VFR Flight: Capabilities and Limits
When using panel-mounted GPS units, the FAA emphasizes that these systems are supplemental for VFR pilots. The FAA Airman Knowledge navigation and charts review includes questions regarding the integration of GPS with other cockpit instruments. For example, some GPS units can drive a traditional CDI. In this mode, the sensitivity of the CDI changes depending on the phase of flight (en route, terminal, or approach).
You must also understand the concept of Cross-Track Error, which is the distance the aircraft is off the desired track, usually displayed in nautical miles. Unlike a VOR CDI, where the needle deflection represents an angular deviation (degrees), a GPS CDI deflection represents a linear distance. A common exam scenario involves determining the aircraft's position when the GPS shows a specific distance and bearing from a waypoint that is also identified on a sectional chart. This requires the pilot to synthesize electronic data with paper-based visual information.
Backup Navigation and Loss of GPS Scenarios
Reliance on technology can lead to a loss of situational awareness if the system fails. The FAA Knowledge Test addresses this by asking about procedures during a loss of GPS signal or a RAIM failure. If the "RAIM Unavailable" message appears, the pilot can no longer rely on the GPS for accurate navigation. In such cases, the pilot must be prepared to use VORs, NDBs, or traditional pilotage and dead reckoning.
Questions may involve the steps to take when an integrated flight display fails. This often involves switching to standby instruments. Understanding the power source for your navigation equipment is also tested; for instance, if the aircraft experiences a total electrical failure, the panel-mounted GPS will likely shut down, whereas a handheld unit with its own battery would continue to function. The FAA emphasizes that a pilot should always have a non-GPS-based backup plan, such as a paper sectional chart and a pre-calculated log, to ensure safety in the event of a technological malfunction.
Practical Flight Planning Calculations
Calculating True vs. Magnetic Heading with Variation
one of the most frequent calculation tasks on the exam is the conversion between True Course and Compass Heading. This process accounts for environmental and mechanical factors. The first step is determining the True Course (TC) from the sectional chart using a plotter. Next, you must account for Magnetic Variation, which is the angular difference between True North and Magnetic North. Variation is shown on sectional charts by dashed magenta lines called Isogonic Lines.
The mnemonic "East is Least, West is Best" helps pilots remember to subtract Easterly variation and add Westerly variation. Once you apply variation to your True Course, you have the Magnetic Course (MC). However, to find the Magnetic Heading (MH), you must also apply the wind correction angle. Finally, you account for Magnetic Deviation, which is the interference caused by the aircraft's own electrical systems and metal components. This value is found on a deviation card mounted near the compass. The final result is the Compass Heading (CH), which is what the pilot actually flies.
Determining Groundspeed, Time En Route, and Fuel Burn
Accurate flight planning calculations FAA knowledge test performance depends on the ability to calculate the time and fuel required for a trip. Groundspeed is the aircraft's actual speed over the ground, found by adjusting True Airspeed for wind. Once the groundspeed is known, the time en route is calculated by dividing the total distance by the groundspeed (Time = Distance / Groundspeed).
For example, if a flight covers 150 nautical miles at a groundspeed of 100 knots, the time en route is 1.5 hours (or 1 hour and 30 minutes). To find the fuel burn, you multiply the time en route by the aircraft's fuel consumption rate (Fuel = Time × Burn Rate). If the aircraft burns 8 gallons per hour, the total fuel required for this leg is 12 gallons. The FAA often adds a layer of complexity by asking for the total fuel required including a 30-minute VFR reserve during the day or a 45-minute reserve at night. Failing to add the reserve is a common reason for incorrect answers on these questions.
Accounting for Wind Correction Angle
Wind rarely blows directly down the path of flight. Therefore, a pilot must steer the aircraft slightly into the wind to maintain the desired ground track. This angle is the Wind Correction Angle (WCA). The FAA exam provides the wind direction and speed (from the Winds and Temps Aloft forecast) and your True Airspeed. Using the E6B, you find the WCA.
If the wind is coming from the right, you must add the WCA to your course to get your heading; if from the left, you subtract it. A significant part of the test involves understanding how wind changes at different altitudes. You might be given a choice of three different altitudes and asked which one provides the most favorable tailwind or the least headwind. This requires performing multiple E6B calculations to compare groundspeeds. The ability to quickly and accurately determine the WCA is essential for ensuring the aircraft arrives at its destination with the planned fuel reserves intact.
Airspace Navigation and Communication
Identifying and Transitioning Through Controlled Airspace
Navigating through controlled airspace requires an understanding of both the chart symbols and the regulatory requirements for entry. To enter Class D airspace, a pilot must establish two-way radio communication with the tower. The exam may ask, "At what point must you contact the tower?" The answer is typically before entering the blue dashed line, which usually has a 4-nautical mile radius.
For Class C airspace, the requirements are stricter: you must have a two-way radio and a Mode C Transponder (or ADS-B Out). Entry into the "inner circle" (5nm radius) or the "outer circle" (10nm radius) requires establishing two-way communication, which is defined as the controller acknowledging your specific tail number. Class B airspace is the most restrictive, requiring an explicit clearance ("Cleared to enter the Class B airspace") and a transponder with altitude reporting. The exam often tests whether a pilot can identify the specific altitudes where these requirements begin, especially when flying under the "shelves" of Class B or C airspace.
Required Radio Calls and Transponder Codes
Standardization in communication is vital for safety. The FAA tests your knowledge of standard transponder codes, such as 1200 for VFR flight, 7500 for hijacking, 7600 for radio failure, and 7700 for general emergencies. You must also know the proper format for radio calls, which includes whom you are calling, who you are, where you are, and what your intentions are.
When navigating near non-towered airports, you are expected to communicate on the CTAF. The exam may ask about the recommended distance for making initial contact, which is usually 10 miles out. Additionally, you should be familiar with the Unicom frequency, which can provide non-traffic information like fuel prices or weather, though it is not a substitute for official air traffic control instructions. Understanding when to switch frequencies as you move from one airspace sector to another is a key skill demonstrated in the flight planning portion of the test.
Special VFR and VFR Flight Following Procedures
Special VFR (SVFR) allows a pilot to operate within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace when the weather is below standard VFR minimums (less than 1,000-foot ceiling or 3 miles visibility). The exam tests the requirements for SVFR: you must remain clear of clouds and have at least 1 statute mile of flight visibility. At night, the pilot must also be instrument-rated and the aircraft must be IFR-equipped.
VFR Flight Following is a service provided by ATC on a workload-permitting basis. It provides radar vectors and traffic advisories to VFR pilots. While not mandatory, the FAA encourages its use for increased safety. On the exam, you might be asked how to request this service or what information you need to provide to the controller, such as your aircraft type, position, altitude, and destination. This section emphasizes that while the pilot remains responsible for navigation and obstacle clearance, utilizing available ATC services is a mark of a proficient airman.
Lost Procedures and Diversion Planning
The Standard 'Lost' Protocol
Even with modern tools, pilots can become disoriented. The FAA expects candidates to know the "5 Cs" of the lost protocol: Confess, Climb, Conserve, Communicate, and Comply. Climbing is often the most important step, as it improves radio reception and increases the pilot's visual horizon, making it easier to identify landmarks or receive a VOR signal.
The exam may present a scenario where a pilot is unsure of their position and asks for the best course of action. The correct response usually involves using all available resources, such as contacting Flight Service Stations (FSS) on the standard frequency of 122.2 MHz or using a VOR to find a cross-radial. Identifying two radials from two different VOR stations allows a pilot to pinpoint their exact location at the intersection of those lines—a technique frequently tested in the navigation section.
Calculating a Heading to a Divert Airport
Diversion planning is a practical application of navigation skills under pressure. If a destination becomes unavailable due to weather or mechanical issues, the pilot must quickly calculate a new course. The exam often provides a scenario where you are at a specific point on a chart and must divert to a nearby airport. You must use your plotter to find the new True Course and then apply the current wind conditions to find the heading.
A key aspect of diversion is the rule of thumb method. Since you may not have time for a full E6B calculation, the FAA tests your ability to make mental estimates. For example, if you know the wind is from the west and you are turning north, you know you will need a left wind correction. Being able to choose the most logical heading from a list of options based on these principles is a common testing strategy.
Fuel Management and Decision-Making for Diversions
The final component of navigation is ensuring the aircraft has enough fuel to reach the alternate airport. The FAA knowledge test includes questions that require you to calculate the fuel remaining at the time of the diversion and determine if it is sufficient to reach the new destination while maintaining the legal reserve.
This involves a multi-step process: calculating fuel burned during the initial leg, subtracting that from the starting fuel, and then calculating the fuel required for the new distance at the current groundspeed. This reinforces the concept that navigation is not just about finding a path, but about managing the aircraft's resources to ensure a safe outcome. The FAA Airman Knowledge navigation and charts review concludes by ensuring that the pilot can make the "go/no-go" decision based on hard data, ensuring that every flight—no matter how much it deviates from the original plan—ends on a safe runway.