CLEP American History Key Events Review Framework
Exam Structure: US History I vs. US History II
The CLEP program splits American history into two distinct assessments, though they share a significant chronological overlap during the Reconstruction era. The CLEP US History 1 study guide focuses on the period from 1492 through 1877. This exam begins with the first European contacts and the development of colonial societies, moving through the revolutionary struggle and ending with the formal conclusion of Reconstruction. In contrast, the CLEP US History 2 topics span from 1865 to the present day. This second exam emphasizes the transition of the United States into an industrial powerhouse, its emergence as a global superpower, and the internal social revolutions of the 20th century. Candidates should note that the overlap between 1865 and 1877 means that the Civil War's aftermath is a high-yield area for both exams. Each test provides approximately 90 minutes of testing time, where raw scores are converted into a scaled score ranging from 20 to 80. A score of 50 is typically the threshold for earning three to six semester hours of college credit.
Thematic Focus Areas and Question Distribution
The CLEP history exams are not merely tests of political history. The CLEP history exam content outline indicates that approximately 30% to 40% of the questions focus on social and cultural developments. This includes the evolution of gender roles, the impact of immigration patterns, and the history of religious movements such as the Second Great Awakening. Another 30% typically covers political institutions and behavior, including the development of the Two-Party System and the expansion of federal power. The remaining percentage is split between economic history (labor movements, industrialization) and foreign policy. Understanding this distribution is vital; for instance, a question regarding the Seneca Falls Convention is just as likely to appear as a question about the Monroe Doctrine. Success requires a balanced approach that integrates intellectual history—the "history of ideas"—with traditional chronological timelines.
Colonial Foundations and the Revolutionary Era (1492-1789)
Early Colonial Societies and Conflicts
The early American period is defined by the varying motivations of European powers and the complex interactions between settlers and indigenous populations. In the Chesapeake, the 1607 founding of Jamestown introduced the Headright System, which incentivized the importation of labor and led to the entrenchment of plantation-based economies. Conversely, the New England colonies were shaped by Puritan ideology and the Mayflower Compact, establishing a precedent for self-governance based on religious and social covenants. Students must understand the significance of the Great Awakening in the 1730s and 1740s, which challenged traditional authority and fostered a shared American identity. Conflicts like King Philip's War and Bacon's Rebellion are frequently tested as they illustrate the mounting tensions over land and labor that preceded the shift toward African chattel slavery. These events set the stage for the divergence between the Northern and Southern colonies.
Causes and Major Battles of the American Revolution
The transition from loyal British subjects to revolutionaries was catalyzed by the end of Salutary Neglect following the French and Indian War in 1763. The British attempt to recoup war debts through the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts met with ideological resistance formulated in documents like Thomas Paine’s Common Sense. The exam often focuses on the "Turning Point" battles, most notably the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. This victory was diplomatically essential because it secured the formal alliance with France, providing the Continental Army with the naval support and financing necessary to trap Cornwallis at Yorktown. Candidates should be able to explain how the ideological shift toward republicanism influenced the decentralized structure of the Articles of Confederation, which prioritized state sovereignty at the expense of federal efficiency.
Drafting and Ratifying the Constitution
The failure of the Articles of Confederation to manage economic crises like Shays' Rebellion led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. This is a critical section for the American history timeline for CLEP, as it involves the "Great Compromise" which established the bicameral legislature. A deep understanding of the Federalist Papers (specifically Federalist No. 10 and No. 51) is required to explain the arguments for a large republic and the system of checks and balances. The debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists over the inclusion of a Bill of Rights is a frequent source of questions. The ratification process itself established the legal framework for the United States, but it left the issue of slavery unresolved through the Three-Fifths Compromise, a decision that would eventually lead to the sectional crises of the 19th century.
Expansion, Sectionalism, and the Civil War (1800-1877)
Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny
The early 19th century was dominated by the concept of Manifest Destiny, the belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand across the North American continent. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase doubled the nation's size, but it also forced the federal government to confront the question of whether new territories would permit slavery. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 attempted to maintain a regional balance by establishing the 36°30' parallel as a boundary for slavery's expansion. This era also saw the forced relocation of Native Americans via the Indian Removal Act of 1830, a policy that culminated in the Trail of Tears. Expansionist policies under President James K. Polk led to the Mexican-American War and the subsequent Mexican Cession, which reignited the slavery debate and directly led to the Compromise of 1850.
Growing Sectional Tensions and Causes of the Civil War
Sectionalism was driven by divergent economic systems: the industrializing North versus the agrarian, slave-based South. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which introduced the concept of Popular Sovereignty, effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise and led to "Bleeding Kansas." This period is marked by the rise of the Republican Party and the increasing influence of abolitionist literature, such as Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The Supreme Court's ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) further inflamed tensions by declaring that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories. The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 served as the final catalyst for secession. Exam questions often require candidates to distinguish between the immediate political causes of the war and the underlying social and economic frictions that had been building for decades.
Reconstruction Policies and Their Impact
Following the Union victory, the era of Reconstruction (1865-1877) focused on reintegrating the Southern states and defining the rights of formerly enslaved people. The Reconstruction Amendments—the 13th (abolishing slavery), 14th (granting citizenship and equal protection), and 15th (securing voting rights)—are essential important dates for CLEP history review. However, the period was also defined by the rise of Black Codes and the eventual establishment of Jim Crow laws, which circumvented federal mandates. The "Compromise of 1877," which settled the disputed Hayes-Tilden presidential election, resulted in the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. This event effectively ended Reconstruction and allowed for the restoration of white supremacy in the region, a development that would shape American race relations for the next century.
The Rise of Industrial Capitalism and Labor Movements
The Gilded Age was characterized by rapid industrial growth and the concentration of wealth in the hands of "Captains of Industry" like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller. This expansion was supported by the growth of the railroad network and the principles of Laissez-faire economics. However, the lack of regulation led to harsh working conditions, prompting the rise of labor unions such as the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Major labor conflicts, including the Homestead Strike and the Pullman Strike, are frequently tested as examples of the federal government's tendency to side with management over labor. This era also saw a massive wave of "New Immigration" from Southern and Eastern Europe, which transformed the urban landscape and triggered a rise in nativist sentiment.
In response to the excesses of the Gilded Age, the Progressive Era (roughly 1890-1920) sought to use the government as an instrument of social and political reform. Muckrakers like Ida Tarbell and Upton Sinclair exposed corruption and unsafe conditions, leading to legislation such as the Pure Food and Drug Act. Key political reforms included the 17th Amendment (direct election of Senators) and the 19th Amendment (women’s suffrage). This period also saw the emergence of the "Social Gospel" movement and the establishment of settlement houses like Jane Addams' Hull House. Candidates should understand the role of Theodore Roosevelt’s "Square Deal" and Woodrow Wilson’s "New Freedom" in expanding the regulatory power of the federal government over corporations and the environment.
US Imperialism and Involvement in World War I
By the late 19th century, the United States began to project its power globally, a shift exemplified by the Spanish-American War in 1898. The acquisition of territories like the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico signaled the end of American isolationism. This trend continued with the construction of the Panama Canal and the implementation of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. Although the US initially remained neutral in World War I, the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany and the Zimmerman Telegram led to US entry in 1917. The exam emphasizes the domestic impact of the war, including the Great Migration of African Americans to Northern cities and the suppression of civil liberties under the Espionage and Sedition Acts.
Prosperity, Depression, and Global Conflict (1919-1945)
The Roaring Twenties and the Great Depression
The 1920s were a decade of profound cultural tension between traditionalism and modernity. The Harlem Renaissance showcased African American intellectual and artistic achievements, while the Scopes "Monkey" Trial highlighted the conflict between fundamentalism and modern science. Economically, the decade was marked by a consumer boom fueled by credit and the assembly line. However, underlying weaknesses in the agricultural and banking sectors led to the Stock Market Crash of 1929. The ensuing Great Depression was the most severe economic downturn in US history, characterized by 25% unemployment and the failure of thousands of banks. The exam often asks candidates to identify the causes of the Depression beyond the crash itself, such as overproduction and the restrictive Hawley-Smoot Tariff.
The New Deal and its Legacy
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal represented a fundamental shift in the relationship between the federal government and the economy. The program was organized around the "Three Rs": Relief, Recovery, and Reform. Key agencies such as the Social Security Administration and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) created a federal safety net and modernized infrastructure. The Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act) significantly strengthened the position of labor unions by guaranteeing the right to collective bargaining. While the New Deal did not fully end the Depression, it redefined American liberalism and established the "New Deal Coalition" of labor, minorities, and urban voters that would dominate Democratic politics for decades. Candidates should be familiar with the "Court-Packing Plan" as an example of the constitutional tensions created by the expansion of executive power.
US Role in World War II
The US entry into World War II following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 transformed the nation into the "Arsenal of Democracy." The mobilization for war finally ended the Great Depression and brought millions of women into the workforce, symbolized by the "Rosie the Riveter" campaign. On the battlefield, the US followed a strategy of "Island Hopping" in the Pacific and participated in the D-Day invasion of Normandy in 1944. A critical domestic issue tested on the exam is the Executive Order 9066, which led to the internment of Japanese Americans. The war concluded with the deployment of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, an event that ushered in the nuclear age and set the stage for the ideological struggle with the Soviet Union.
Containment Policy and Major Cold War Events
Following World War II, the United States adopted the policy of Containment, as articulated in the Truman Doctrine, to prevent the spread of communism. This geopolitical strategy led to the formation of NATO and the implementation of the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe. The Cold War turned "hot" during the Korean War and later the Vietnam War, both of which were justified under the Dominion Theory. Domestic anxieties about communism led to the Second Red Scare and the rise of McCarthyism. Key events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) and the launch of Sputnik highlighted the high stakes of the nuclear arms race and the Space Race. Candidates must understand the shift from confrontation to Détente during the Nixon administration, which sought to ease tensions with the USSR and China.
The Civil Rights Movement and Landmark Legislation
The post-war era saw a massive push for racial equality, beginning with the desegregation of the military and the landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine. The movement utilized nonviolent civil disobedience, led by figures like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., to challenge Jim Crow laws. Key events such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington culminated in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These laws dismantled legal segregation and prohibited discriminatory voting practices. The exam also covers the shift toward "Black Power" in the late 1960s and the expansion of the movement to include the rights of women, Latinos, and Native Americans.
Social Movements of the 1960s and 70s
The 1960s were characterized by a counterculture movement that challenged traditional social norms. The "Great Society" programs of Lyndon B. Johnson aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice through initiatives like Medicare and Medicaid. Simultaneously, the Second Wave Feminism movement, sparked by Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, sought equal pay and reproductive rights. The environmental movement gained momentum following the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, leading to the creation of the EPA. However, the decade also saw rising opposition to the Vietnam War and the Watergate Scandal, which resulted in the resignation of Richard Nixon and a profound decline in public trust in the federal government.
Modern America and Global Challenges (1980-Present)
The End of the Cold War and New World Order
The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 marked a resurgence of conservatism and a more aggressive stance toward the Soviet Union. Reagan’s economic policies, known as Supply-Side Economics or "Reaganomics," focused on tax cuts and deregulation. In foreign policy, the Reagan Doctrine supported anti-communist insurgents worldwide. The Cold War came to an end during the administration of George H.W. Bush, following the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. This transition led to the concept of a "New World Order," where the US acted as the sole superpower, exemplified by the multilateral coalition formed during the Persian Gulf War to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait.
Domestic Policy and Economic Shifts
The 1990s, under President Bill Clinton, were defined by economic globalization and the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This era saw a budget surplus but also intense partisan polarization, culminating in Clinton's impeachment. The US economy transitioned further away from manufacturing toward a service- and technology-based model, a shift known as the Information Age. Socially, the country debated issues like healthcare reform and the "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy regarding military service. Candidates should understand how these economic shifts contributed to the widening wealth gap and the political realignment of various demographic groups entering the 21st century.
21st Century Challenges and Foreign Policy
The 21st century began with the transformative impact of the September 11 terrorist attacks, which led to the War on Terror and the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. Domestically, the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act sparked debates over the balance between national security and civil liberties. The Great Recession of 2008, triggered by the subprime mortgage crisis, led to massive federal interventions in the economy under both the Bush and Obama administrations. The election of Barack Obama, the first African American president, and the subsequent passage of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) represented significant milestones in American social and political history. Contemporary history on the CLEP often focuses on these broad trends—globalization, technological change, and the ongoing debate over the role of government—rather than specific recent events.