AP World History Industrialization Review: Origins and Causes (1750-1900)
Preconditions in Britain: Agricultural, Commercial, and Technological
The Industrial Revolution AP World Modern curriculum emphasizes that Britain’s role as the cradle of industrialization was not accidental but the result of specific geographical and legal advantages. The Enclosure Acts played a critical role by privatizing common lands, which forced small-scale farmers into cities, creating a surplus labor force essential for factory work. This coincided with the Second Agricultural Revolution, where innovations like the seed drill and crop rotation increased food production with less labor. Beyond the farm, Britain possessed a sophisticated banking system and a stable legal framework that protected private property, allowing the bourgeoisie to reinvest capital gained from the Atlantic slave trade and mercantilist ventures into new industrial enterprises. On the exam, remember that the "why Britain" question often looks for this combination of capital, labor, and resource availability.
Key Inventions and the Factory System
The transition from the putting-out system (cottage industry) to the factory system marked a departure from human-paced labor to machine-paced production. Inventions such as the spinning jenny and the water frame revolutionized textile production, making it more efficient to house large machines in centralized locations near water sources. This shift created the factory system, characterized by the concentration of labor and the division of tasks. For the AP exam, it is vital to understand the concept of specialization of labor; unlike a traditional artisan who created a whole product, a factory worker performed a repetitive, singular task. This increased output exponentially but decreased the required skill level of the workforce, leading to the widespread use of low-wage unskilled labor, including women and children.
The Role of Energy Sources (Coal and Steam)
If textiles provided the momentum, energy sources provided the power. The transition from wood and water power to fossil fuels is a defining feature of the AP World History 1750-1900 review period. The development of the James Watt steam engine allowed factories to move away from rivers, as they could now be powered by coal anywhere. This innovation had a multiplier effect: coal mining became a massive industry, which in turn required better transportation, leading to the development of the steam locomotive and iron-clad steamships. This reliance on carbon-based energy represents a fundamental shift in the human-environment interaction, a recurring theme in the AP curriculum. Students should be prepared to discuss how the move to coal broke the "organic economy" constraints, allowing for indefinite economic growth at the cost of significant environmental degradation.
The Global Spread and Variations of Industrialization
The Second Industrial Wave in the US, Germany, and Japan
As the 19th century progressed, a second wave of industrialization emerged, characterized by the production of steel, chemicals, and electricity. This period, often called the Second Industrial Revolution, saw the United States and Germany overtake Britain in total industrial output. In the U.S., the expansion of the transcontinental railroad integrated vast resources with coastal markets, while in Germany, the unification of the state in 1871 allowed for heavy investment in the Bessemer process for mass-producing steel. Japan’s entry into this wave was uniquely rapid, transitioning from a feudal society to an industrial powerhouse in mere decades. On the exam, this wave is often associated with the rise of monopolies and large-scale corporate structures that required massive capital investment and sophisticated management.
State-Led Industrialization in Russia and Meiji Japan
Unlike Britain’s laissez-faire origins, industrialization in Russia and Japan was a defensive response to Western encroachment. The Meiji Restoration in Japan abolished the shogunate and implemented state-sponsored industrialization to avoid the fate of China during the Opium Wars. The government built shipyards, factories, and schools, then sold them to private investors known as zaibatsu. Similarly, in Russia, Finance Minister Sergei Witte pushed for the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad and invited foreign investment to modernize the Russian steel and oil sectors. In both cases, the state acted as the primary architect of economic change. For an LEQ (Long Essay Question), comparing the state-led models of Russia and Japan against the private-enterprise model of Britain provides a high-level analysis of "Continuity and Change."
Limiting Factors in Latin America, Asia, and Africa
While some regions industrialized, others were integrated into the global economy as providers of raw materials, a process often termed export economies. In Latin America, the focus remained on mining and large-scale agriculture (latifundia), producing goods like guano, copper, and coffee for Western factories. This created a "dependency" where these regions became vulnerable to fluctuations in global market prices. In India, the British East India Company and later the British Raj actively discouraged local textile manufacturing to ensure India remained a market for British-made cloth. This deindustrialization of formerly dominant manufacturing centers in Asia is a critical point for the AP exam; it explains the widening "Great Divergence" between the industrialized West and the colonized or peripheral regions of the world.
Social Reordering and Ideological Responses
The Rise of Industrial Classes: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat
Industrialization dismantled the traditional estate-based social hierarchies and replaced them with a class system based on wealth and relationship to production. The bourgeoisie, or the middle class, gained significant political and economic power, often at the expense of the old landed aristocracy. Below them, the proletariat, or urban working class, faced grueling conditions: 12-to-16-hour workdays, dangerous environments, and cramped, unsanitary housing in tenements. The AP curriculum requires students to understand how this shift affected gender roles; while middle-class women were often relegated to the "cult of domesticity," working-class women were forced into factory labor while still carrying the burden of domestic duties, creating a "double burden" that fueled later feminist movements.
New Economic and Social Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Communism
The radical changes in the social fabric prompted new intellectual frameworks. Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations championed laissez-faire capitalism, arguing that the "invisible hand" of the market would ensure the best outcomes for society if the government stayed out of the economy. In contrast, the systemic poverty of the working class led to the rise of socialism, which advocated for public or direct worker ownership of the means of production. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels took this further in The Communist Manifesto, proposing scientific socialism (communism). They argued that history was a series of class struggles and that the proletariat would inevitably overthrow the bourgeoisie in a violent revolution. Understanding these ideologies is essential for interpreting primary source documents in the Document-Based Question (DBQ) section of the exam.
In response to the excesses of industrial capitalism, workers began to organize into labor unions to advocate for better wages and safer conditions. These movements often faced state-sanctioned violence but eventually forced governments to intervene. In Britain, the Factory Acts limited child labor and reduced working hours, while in Germany, Otto von Bismarck introduced the world’s first social welfare programs, including accident insurance and old-age pensions, primarily to head off the growing popularity of socialist parties. This transition from "raw" capitalism to a more regulated "welfare" capitalism is a major theme in consequences of industrialization unit 6. Students should be able to identify how these reforms were often pragmatic attempts by the ruling class to maintain social stability rather than purely altruistic endeavors.
Economic Imperialism and the New Imperialism
Industrial Motives for Empire: Raw Materials and Markets
The industrial machine had an insatiable appetite for resources not found in Europe, such as rubber from the Congo, palm oil from West Africa, and tin from Southeast Asia. This necessity drove new imperialism AP World History trends, where industrialized nations sought direct political and military control over these resource-rich territories. Furthermore, the massive output of factories led to "overproduction," necessitating new markets to sell finished goods. This economic imperative was often justified by the pseudo-scientific ideology of Social Darwinism, which applied "survival of the fittest" to human societies, and the "White Man's Burden," which framed imperial conquest as a civilizing mission. For the AP exam, always link the economic need for raw materials to the political action of colonization.
Industrialization provided the technological means to realize imperial ambitions. Before the 19th century, Europeans were largely confined to the coasts of Africa and Asia due to disease and geography. However, the invention of quinine allowed Europeans to survive malaria, while steamships enabled them to navigate upriver into the interior of continents. The telegraph allowed for near-instantaneous communication between the colonial administration and the home government, facilitating the management of vast, far-flung empires. Most decisively, innovations in weaponry, such as the Maxim gun (the first fully automatic machine gun), gave industrial powers an overwhelming military advantage over traditional societies. This technological gap is a crucial piece of cause-effect reasoning when explaining why the "Scramble for Africa" happened so rapidly.
Case Studies: The Scramble for Africa and the British in India
The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 serves as the quintessential example of imperial competition; here, European powers divided Africa among themselves without a single African representative present. In India, the British shifted from indirect rule through the East India Company to direct rule (the British Raj) following the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The British built an extensive railroad network in India, not to develop the local economy, but to efficiently transport raw cotton to the coast for export and to move troops quickly to suppress dissent. These case studies illustrate the concept of extractive economies, where the infrastructure built by imperial powers was designed solely to facilitate the flow of wealth back to the metropole. Students should use these specific examples to support arguments about the coercive nature of 19th-century global trade.
Global Migration in the Industrial Age
Voluntary Migration: Europeans to the Americas
The period from 1750 to 1900 saw an unprecedented movement of people, driven by the search for work in the new industrial economy. Global migration 1750-1900 was fueled by the "push" of population pressure and displacement in Europe and the "pull" of industrial jobs in the United States, Brazil, and Argentina. Many of these migrants were young men, which altered the demographic structures of both their home and host countries. As they settled, they formed ethnic enclaves—such as Little Italys or Irish neighborhoods—which helped them preserve their culture while providing a support network in a new land. On the exam, be prepared to discuss the reactionary legislation this migration caused, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act or the White Australia Policy, which reflected growing nativist and racist sentiments.
Coerced and Semi-Coerced Labor: Indentured Servitude from Asia
As the abolition of slavery progressed throughout the 19th century, plantation and mine owners sought new sources of cheap labor. This led to a resurgence of indentured servitude, particularly from China and India. Hundreds of thousands of Indian laborers were sent to British colonies in the Caribbean, East Africa, and Fiji, while Chinese "coolies" were sent to the sugar plantations of Cuba and the guano pits of Peru. While technically contractual, these arrangements were often characterized by deception and brutal conditions that mirrored slavery. This "new system of slavery" is a vital component of the AP World History curriculum, as it explains the diverse modern populations of regions like Guyana, Mauritius, and Trinidad.
Internal and Regional Migration Patterns
Not all migration was transoceanic. Industrialization triggered massive urbanization, the internal migration of people from rural areas to cities. In 1800, only a small fraction of the world’s population lived in cities; by 1900, in industrialized nations, the majority did. This shift created "megacities" like London and New York, which struggled with infrastructure, sanitation, and crime. Regionally, migrations also occurred within empires; for example, Japanese workers moved to Hawaii and the West Coast of the U.S. for agricultural work, and Russians moved into Central Asia and Siberia following the completion of the railroads. For the AP exam, remember that migration is a response to the uneven distribution of industrial opportunities and the global demand for labor in both factories and extractive industries.
Synthesis: Connecting Industrialization to Earlier and Later Units
Comparing Industrial Revolution to earlier technological revolutions
To achieve the "Complexity" point on the AP World History exam, one must be able to synthesize industrialization with other eras. Comparing the Industrial Revolution to the Neolithic Revolution is a classic synthesis point. Both involved a fundamental change in how humans obtained energy and food, and both led to massive population growth and increased social stratification. However, while the Neolithic Revolution took thousands of years to spread and was based on biological energy, the Industrial Revolution occurred in a matter of decades and was based on fossil fuels. This transition from "organic" to "mineral" energy is the defining break in human history, leading to the Anthropocene, a new geological epoch characterized by human impact on the Earth’s systems.
Industrialization as a Root Cause of 20th-Century Global Conflict
The competition for resources and markets established during the industrial era directly laid the groundwork for the world wars of the 20th century. The militarism of the early 1900s was a product of industrial capacity; nations were now able to mass-produce advanced weaponry and mobilize millions of men via railroad. The "New Imperialism" created friction between European powers, such as the Anglo-German naval arms race and the Moroccan Crises, which served as precursors to World War I. Furthermore, the social inequalities produced by industrial capitalism fueled the Russian Revolution of 1917, as the Bolsheviks promised to dismantle the very system this review has described. Understanding Units 5 and 6 is therefore essential for comprehending the total wars and ideological battles of Unit 7 and Unit 8.
Legacy in the Modern Global Economy
The structures of the 19th-century industrial world remain visible in the contemporary era. The division of the world into "developed" (industrialized) and "developing" (formerly extractive) nations is a direct legacy of the Great Divergence. Modern global supply chains still rely on the principles of comparative advantage and specialization of labor established during the 1800s. Furthermore, the environmental consequences—specifically the accumulation of greenhouse gases from coal and oil—are the primary drivers of modern climate change. In the context of the AP exam, industrialization is the "hinge" of history; it explains why the West rose to temporary global hegemony and provides the context for the decolonization movements and economic shifts of the late 20th century.