AP Psychology Key Terms and Definitions: Foundational Concepts
Research Methods and Statistics Vocabulary
In the scientific foundation of psychology, the distinction between an independent variable (the factor manipulated by the researcher) and a dependent variable (the measured outcome) is paramount. To ensure that results are due to the manipulation rather than chance, researchers must use random assignment to place participants into experimental or control groups, thereby minimizing confounding variables. This differs from random sampling, which concerns how participants are selected from a population to ensure generalizability. When evaluating the strength of a study, students must look at the correlation coefficient (r), a statistical measure ranging from -1.0 to +1.0 that indicates the direction and strength of a relationship. A crucial exam-specific concept is statistical significance (typically p < .05), which suggests that the observed results are unlikely to have occurred by chance. Precision in this unit also requires understanding the difference between reliability (consistency of measurement) and validity (accuracy of measurement).
Biological Psychology Essential Terms
The biological perspective focuses on the physical structures and chemical processes that dictate behavior. Central to this is the neuron, the basic building block of the nervous system. Students must understand the action potential, an all-or-nothing electrical impulse that travels down the axon. Communication between neurons occurs at the synapse via neurotransmitters like dopamine (reward) and serotonin (mood). The endocrine system works in tandem with the nervous system, using the pituitary gland—often called the "master gland"—to regulate growth and other endocrine functions. Within the brain, the limbic system (including the amygdala and hippocampus) governs emotion and memory, while the cerebral cortex manages higher-order thinking. A common FRQ topic is neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to reorganize itself after damage or through experience, a concept that challenges the older notion that the adult brain is hard-wired and unchangeable.
Sensation and Perception Terminology
Sensation is the physiological process of detecting environmental stimuli, while perception is the psychological process of interpreting that data. Transduction is the critical mechanism here; it is the conversion of physical energy (like light waves) into neural impulses. The absolute threshold refers to the minimum stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time, whereas the difference threshold (or Just Noticeable Difference) follows Weber’s Law, stating that the change needed to notice a difference is proportional to the original intensity. In the realm of perception, top-down processing uses our experiences and expectations to interpret sensory information, while bottom-up processing starts with the raw stimulus. Students should also be familiar with sensory adaptation, where constant stimulation leads to a decrease in firing rate, and perceptual set, a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, often influenced by schemas.
Learning and Cognition: Crucial Terminology
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning: Key Distinctions
Learning theories are a cornerstone of the AP Psych vocabulary list. Classical conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, involves associating an involuntary response with a stimulus. Key terms include the Unconditioned Stimulus (US), which naturally triggers a response, and the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), which triggers a response only after association. In contrast, operant conditioning terms focus on voluntary behaviors influenced by consequences. B.F. Skinner emphasized reinforcement (increasing a behavior) and punishment (decreasing a behavior). Within this framework, "positive" means adding a stimulus, while "negative" means removing one. For example, negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus (like an alarm) to increase a behavior (waking up), a concept frequently confused with punishment. Additionally, the Law of Effect suggests that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, providing the theoretical basis for Skinner's work.
Memory Processes and Models (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval)
The Information Processing Model likens human memory to a computer. Encoding is the initial processing of information, which can be improved through elaborative rehearsal—linking new information to existing knowledge. Storage involves the retention of encoded information over time, moving from sensory memory to short-term (working) memory, and finally to long-term memory. The capacity of short-term memory is often cited as "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two." Retrieval is the process of getting information out of storage. When retrieval fails, it may be due to interference (proactive or retroactive). A vital distinction for the exam is between explicit memory (conscious facts and experiences) and implicit memory (unconscious skills or classical conditioning). The serial position effect explains why we tend to remember the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list better than those in the middle.
Cognitive Biases and Heuristics (Availability, Confirmation, Representativeness)
Cognitive psychology explores how mental shortcuts, or heuristics, help us solve problems efficiently but sometimes lead to errors. The availability heuristic leads us to estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind (e.g., fearing a plane crash because of recent news coverage). The representativeness heuristic causes us to judge the likelihood of things based on how well they match our prototypes, often leading to stereotyping. Perhaps the most pervasive bias is confirmation bias, the tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions while ignoring contradictory evidence. To define cognitive dissonance AP style, one must explain it as the psychological tension felt when an individual's behaviors and beliefs are inconsistent. To reduce this discomfort, individuals typically change their attitude to align with their behavior, a process often tested through scenarios involving social pressure or personal justification.
Developmental, Motivation, and Personality Lexicon
Piaget's Stages and Key Developmental Terms
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is essential for understanding how children’s thinking evolves. Students must identify the four stages: sensorimotor (birth–2 years), preoperational (2–7 years), concrete operational (7–11 years), and formal operational (12+ years). Within these stages, object permanence (knowing an object exists when hidden) and conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape) are critical milestones. Development is driven by schemas, which are mental frameworks. When we encounter new information, we use assimilation (fitting it into existing schemas) or accommodation (changing schemas to fit new information). Another vital developmental concept is attachment theory, particularly Mary Ainsworth’s "Strange Situation" which classified infants as having secure, anxious-ambivalent, or avoidant attachment styles based on their reactions to a caregiver's return.
Theories of Motivation (Drive Reduction, Maslow's Hierarchy)
Motivation explains why we act. The Drive-Reduction Theory posits that physiological needs (like hunger) create an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need and return to homeostasis, or internal balance. However, this doesn't explain why we seek thrills, leading to the Arousal Theory and the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which suggests that performance is best under moderate levels of arousal. On a more holistic level, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs organizes human motives from basic physiological requirements to self-actualization. In the context of achievement, the distinction between intrinsic motivation (doing something for its own sake) and extrinsic motivation (doing something for a reward) is a frequent exam topic. The overjustification effect occurs when an external incentive decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task they previously enjoyed.
Psychodynamic, Humanistic, and Trait Theory Vocabulary
Personality assessment involves various theoretical lenses. Freud’s psychodynamic theory emphasizes the unconscious and the struggle between the id (pleasure-seeking), ego (reality-oriented), and superego (moral compass). To manage the anxiety from these conflicts, the ego employs defense mechanisms definitions such as projection (attributing one's own impulses to others) or reaction formation (switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites). Humanistic theorists like Carl Rogers focus on the self-concept and the importance of unconditional positive regard in achieving personal growth. Modern personality research relies heavily on trait theory, specifically the "Big Five" traits (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism). These are often measured using the MMPI, a statistically validated personality inventory that includes validity scales to detect if a respondent is being untruthful.
Clinical Psychology: Diagnosing and Treating Disorders
DSM-5 and Diagnostic Criteria Terminology
The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) is the standard classification system used by mental health professionals in the United States. It provides a common language and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders. It is important to note that the DSM-5 does not explain the causes (etiology) of disorders but rather describes their symptoms. In the AP exam, students must understand the medical model, which views psychological disorders as "illnesses" that can be diagnosed and treated. This is often contrasted with the biopsychosocial approach, which considers the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors. Key diagnostic terms include comorbidity (the presence of two or more disorders in one person) and prevalence (how common a disorder is in a population).
Major Psychological Disorders: Definitions and Symptoms
Students must distinguish between various categories of disorders. Anxiety disorders, such as Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) and Panic Disorder, involve persistent, distressing anxiety. Depressive disorders involve emotional extremes, while Bipolar Disorder is characterized by alternating between depression and mania (a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state). Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder marked by delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations (false sensory experiences). Dissociative disorders involve a disruption in conscious awareness or identity, such as Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). It is crucial to understand the diathesis-stress model, which suggests that a genetic predisposition (diathesis) combines with environmental stress to trigger a disorder. This concept is a frequent target for FRQs asking students to explain the onset of specific conditions.
Therapy Approaches: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic
Treatment modalities vary based on the underlying psychological perspective. Psychodynamic therapy focuses on uncovering unconscious conflicts through techniques like free association. Behavioral therapy applies important AP Psych concepts from learning theory, such as systematic desensitization (gradually exposing a patient to an object of fear) or aversion therapy. Cognitive therapy, developed by figures like Aaron Beck, aims to change self-defeating thinking patterns. A common modern approach is Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), which addresses both irrational thoughts and maladaptive behaviors. Humanistic therapy, or client-centered therapy, emphasizes empathy and active listening. Finally, biomedical therapy involves the use of psychotropic medications, such as SSRIs for depression or antipsychotics for schizophrenia, often targeting specific neurotransmitter imbalances.
Social Psychology: The Language of Influence
Attribution Theory and Attributional Biases
Social psychology examines how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Attribution theory explains how we credit either the situation or the person's disposition for their behavior. A major pitfall in human judgment is the Fundamental Attribution Error, where we overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the power of the situation when analyzing others' behavior. We often exhibit a self-serving bias, attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external ones. Another concept is the just-world phenomenon, the tendency to believe the world is fair and people therefore get what they deserve. These biases are central to the AP Psychology terminology quiz sections that require students to analyze social scenarios and predict how individuals will explain the actions of themselves versus others.
Social influence is often measured through the lenses of conformity and obedience. Conformity is adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard, as demonstrated in Solomon Asch’s line study. This is driven by normative social influence (the desire to gain approval) or informational social influence (the desire to be correct). Obedience refers to following orders from an authority figure, famously studied by Stanley Milgram. Within group settings, performance can change; social facilitation occurs when the presence of others improves performance on simple tasks, while social loafing is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group. In extreme cases, a group may experience deindividuation, a loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination Definitions
It is vital to distinguish between three related but distinct terms: stereotypes (generalized beliefs/cognitions), prejudice (unjustifiable attitudes/feelings), and discrimination (unjustifiable negative behavior). These often stem from in-group bias, the tendency to favor our own group, and the out-group homogeneity effect, where we perceive members of other groups as being "all the same." Conflict between groups can be reduced through superordinate goals, which are shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. The mere exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking of them. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for FRQs that ask students to propose solutions to social conflict or explain the roots of systemic bias within a community.
Strategies for Memorizing and Applying Psychological Terms
Using Flashcards and Spaced Repetition Effectively
Because the AP Psychology exam covers hundreds of terms, traditional cramming is rarely effective. The testing effect suggests that the act of retrieving information from memory significantly enhances long-term retention compared to simply re-reading notes. Students should utilize spaced repetition, a learning technique that involves increasing the intervals between reviews of previously learned material to exploit the psychological spacing effect. When using digital or physical flashcards, it is helpful to include not just the definition, but also a "personal example" to utilize the self-reference effect. By relating a term like "proactive interference" to a personal experience—such as accidentally calling a new teacher by an old teacher's name—the neural pathways associated with that term are strengthened, making retrieval during the exam much more reliable.
Psychology is a highly interconnected field, and the exam often asks students to relate concepts from different units. A concept map is a visual tool that helps students organize and represent knowledge. For example, a map centered on "The Biological Basis of Behavior" can branch out into neurotransmitters, then further into specific disorders like Parkinson's (linked to low dopamine). This method addresses the levels of processing theory, which posits that "deep processing" (semantic encoding) leads to better retention than "shallow processing" (visual or acoustic encoding). By mapping the relationship between the amygdala (fear) and classical conditioning (learned fear), students prepare for complex multiple-choice questions that require synthesis rather than simple identification. This structural understanding is what separates top-tier students from those who only know definitions in isolation.
Practicing with 'Define and Apply' Free-Response Prompts
The FRQ section is the ultimate test of a student's mastery of the psychology glossary for AP exam. Each point on the FRQ typically requires two parts: a clear definition (or a description that shows understanding) and a specific application to the provided scenario. A common mistake is providing a circular definition—using the term to define itself. Instead, students should use the "Chug-Chug" method: clearly state the concept's meaning and then "chug" through the application by using the names of the characters and the specific actions mentioned in the prompt. For instance, if asked to apply cognitive dissonance, one must explain the conflict (the belief vs. the action) and the resulting change (the new attitude). Practicing with past scoring rubrics allows students to see exactly how the College Board awards points for precision and context, ensuring that no technical terms are used vaguely or incorrectly during the actual assessment.