AP Music Theory Review Packet: Foundational Elements Quick Reference
Interval Recognition Chart and Mnemonics
Intervals are the building blocks of all harmonic and melodic analysis on the exam. For the AP curriculum, you must distinguish between Perfect, Major, Minor, Augmented, and Diminished qualities instantly. A common pitfall in the aural section is confusing the Perfect 4th with the Perfect 5th; remember that the P4 often sounds like the start of "Here Comes the Bride," while the P5 provides the hollow, stable foundation of a power chord. In the written portion, use the half-step count method as a fail-safe: a Major 3rd contains 4 half-steps, while a minor 3rd contains 3. When dealing with intervals larger than an octave, treat them as simple intervals for quality identification but label them correctly (e.g., a 10th is a compound 3rd). Understanding the Inversion Rule of 9 is critical: a Major 2nd inverts to a minor 7th (2+7=9, and Major becomes minor). This shortcut is invaluable for identifying wide leaps in melodic dictation or complex vertical structures in Roman numeral analysis.
Scale construction is governed by specific patterns of whole (W) and half (H) steps. For the Major scale, the formula is W-W-H-W-W-W-H. However, the AP exam places heavy emphasis on the three forms of the minor scale: Natural, Harmonic, and Melodic. The Harmonic Minor scale is the most frequent harmonic generator, characterized by the raised 7th scale degree (the Leading Tone), which creates an augmented second between the 6th and 7th degrees. The Melodic Minor scale is unique because it changes based on direction—raising the 6th and 7th degrees when ascending and reverting to the natural minor (lowered 6th and 7th) when descending. On the exam, you must be able to identify these scales in both bass and treble clefs. Remember that scale degrees are often referred to by their functional names: Tonic (1), Supertonic (2), Mediant (3), Subdominant (4), Dominant (5), Submediant (6), and Leading Tone (7).
Key Signature Circle of Fifths Diagram
As part of your AP Music Theory condensed notes, the Circle of Fifths is the ultimate visual tool for key identification. Moving clockwise from C Major, you add one sharp for every fifth you ascend (G, D, A, E, B, F#, C#). Moving counter-clockwise, you add one flat for every fifth you descend (F, Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, Gb, Cb). The order of sharps (F-C-G-D-A-E-B) and flats (B-E-A-D-G-C-F) must be memorized to the point of second nature. For minor keys, always find the Relative Major by going up a minor third (3 half-steps) from the minor tonic. For example, the relative major of A minor is C Major. In the free-response section, failing to check the key signature before beginning a realization or dictation is the most common cause of lost points. Always verify if the melody or progression is in a minor key by looking for the raised 7th (accidental) in the score.
Chord Progressions and Harmonic Function Summaries
Understanding harmonic progression patterns AP graders look for is essential for both Part-Writing and Contextual Listening. Harmonic motion generally follows a standard path: Tonic → Predominant → Dominant → Tonic. Within this framework, specific chords have assigned roles. The ii and IV chords function as predominants, leading directly to the V or vii°. The vi chord often acts as a bridge between the tonic and the predominant (I-vi-ii-V). In minor keys, the ii° and iv chords fulfill the predominant role. A common sequence is the Circle of Fifths progression, which moves in descending fifths (e.g., vi-ii-V-I). On the exam, you will frequently encounter the cadential 6/4, which is a second-inversion tonic chord (I 6/4) functioning as a decoration of the Dominant (V). It always occurs on a stronger beat than the V chord it precedes.
Cadence Types and Their Identifying Features
Cadences provide the punctuation for musical phrases and are weighted heavily in scoring. The Authentic Cadence (V-I) is the most conclusive. It is "Perfect" (PAC) if both chords are in root position and the tonic is in the highest voice of the final chord; otherwise, it is "Imperfect" (IAC). The Half Cadence (HC) ends on V, creating a sense of incompletion or a "comma" in the music. The Plagal Cadence (IV-I), often called the "Amen" cadence, provides a softer resolution. Finally, the Deceptive Cadence (V-vi) subverts listener expectations by moving from the dominant to the submediant instead of the tonic. During aural sections, listen for the bass movement: a leap of a 4th up or 5th down almost always signals an authentic cadence, while a step up from V to vi signals a deceptive resolution.
Recognizing and Analyzing Secondary Dominants
Secondary dominants (or applied chords) are used to temporarily tonicize a chord other than the tonic. They are written as V/x or vii°/x, where "x" is the chord being tonicized. To identify a secondary dominant, look for an accidental that does not belong to the home key. For example, in C Major, a D Major chord (D-F#-A) moving to G Major (G-B-D) is labeled as V/V. The rule for construction is simple: find the target chord, determine its dominant, and build that chord using the necessary accidentals. Secondary dominants must resolve correctly: the temporary leading tone (the third of the V/x chord) must resolve up by a half-step to the root of the target chord. This concept is a frequent feature in the AP Music Theory last minute review because it bridges the gap between basic diatonic harmony and chromaticism.
Voice Leading Violations to Avoid
Part-writing is the most technical portion of the exam, governed by strict prohibitions. The most critical rule is the absolute ban on Parallel Perfect Fifths and Parallel Perfect Octaves. These occur when two voices move in the same direction and maintain the same perfect interval distance. Additionally, you must avoid Hidden Fifths or Octaves (also known as direct fifths/octaves), which occur when the soprano and bass move in the same direction into a perfect interval, and the soprano moves by leap. Another major deduction comes from the Leading Tone (scale degree 7) failing to resolve upward to the tonic (scale degree 1) when it is in an outer voice. Finally, avoid the Augmented Second interval in melodic motion, particularly in minor keys when moving between scale degrees 6 and 7. These errors are often referred to as "fatal" because they result in immediate point deductions regardless of the rest of the measure's accuracy.
Figured bass is a shorthand system used to indicate chord inversions and intervals above the bass note. Memorizing this music theory formulas cheat sheet for inversions is mandatory:
- Triads: Root position (none or 5/3), First inversion (6), Second inversion (6/4).
- Seventh Chords: Root position (7), First inversion (6/5), Second inversion (4/3), Third inversion (4/2).
When you see a figure like # or a backslash through a number, it indicates that the specific interval above the bass should be raised by a half-step. If a sharp, flat, or natural sign appears alone under a bass note, it always refers to the third above the bass. In the free-response questions, the figured bass dictates exactly which notes must be present in the upper voices; ignoring a figure such as a 4-3 suspension will result in a loss of both realization and harmonic points.
Doubling and Spacing Guidelines Summary
In four-part writing (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass), you have four voices but only three notes in a triad, necessitating the doubling of one note. For root position triads, the general rule is to double the root. In first inversion triads (6), you can double any note that does not create a voice-leading error, though doubling the soprano or bass is usually safest. However, never double the leading tone or any chordal seventh. For second inversion triads (6/4), you must double the bass (the fifth of the chord). Regarding spacing, keep the upper three voices (S.A.T.) within an octave of each other; the distance between the Bass and Tenor can exceed an octave. Crossing voices—where the Tenor sings higher than the Alto, for example—is a violation of standard practice and will be penalized on the exam.
Melodic Dictation and Aural Analysis Shortcuts
Contour Analysis for Melodic Prediction
During the melodic dictation portion of the exam, you have a limited number of hearings (usually 3 or 4) to transcribe a melody. Using a aural skills quick reference guide approach, the first hearing should be dedicated entirely to contour analysis. Instead of trying to find every pitch, draw a line that mimics the shape of the melody—noting where it leaps, where it moves stepwise, and where it changes direction. Identify the high and low points (the apex and the nadir). Because most AP melodies follow standard tonal shapes, identifying a large leap often suggests a move from the tonic to the dominant or a leap within a tonic triad. Establishing the "skeleton" of the melody first allows you to fill in the specific scale degrees more accurately during subsequent hearings.
Rhythmic Dictation Pattern Library
Rhythmic accuracy is worth approximately half the points in dictation exercises. To succeed, you must recognize common beat subdivisions instantly. In simple meters (2/4, 3/4, 4/4), be prepared for dotted rhythms (dotted eighth-sixteenth) and syncopations. In compound meters (6/8, 9/8, 12/8), the division of the beat is into three parts. A common trap is the hemiola, where a piece in 3/4 time temporarily feels like it is in 2/4, or vice-versa. When transcribing, use a "slash" system: during the first hearing, mark the pulses and use slashes to indicate where notes fall relative to the beat. This prevents you from getting "lost" in the measure if you miss a single complex rhythm.
Identifying Harmonic Cadences by Ear
Harmonic dictation requires you to identify both the bass line and the Roman numeral progression. To identify cadences by ear, focus on the penultimate and final bass notes. A bass movement of scale degree 5 to 1 is a strong indicator of an Authentic Cadence. If you hear the bass move from 5 to 6, it is almost certainly a Deceptive Cadence. Listen for the Sol-Do (5-1) or Fa-Mi (4-3) resolutions in the soprano. In the case of a Half Cadence, the music will feel like it has stopped on an active, unresolved chord. The ability to distinguish between a V chord and a vii°6 chord is also vital; while both have dominant function, the vii°6 has a much thinner, more dissonant quality and the bass will move by step (scale degree 2 to 1) rather than by leap.
Non-Chord Tones and Melodic Decoration Catalog
Passing Tone vs. Neighbor Tone Identification
Non-chord tones (NCTs) are notes that do not belong to the underlying harmony and are categorized by how they are approached and left. A Passing Tone (PT) is approached by step and left by step in the same direction, filling the gap between two chord tones. A Neighbor Tone (NT) is approached by step and left by step in the opposite direction, essentially "visiting" a note above or below the chord tone and returning. On the AP exam, you must distinguish between accented and unaccented NCTs. An Accented Passing Tone occurs on the beat, providing a momentary dissonance that resolves on the off-beat. Correct labeling of these in the analysis section is crucial for full credit, especially in the secondary-dominant and modulation questions.
Suspension and Appoggiatura Resolution Rules
Suspensions are among the most frequently tested NCTs because they involve three distinct phases: the Preparation (a chord tone), the Suspension (the note held over as the harmony changes, becoming a dissonance), and the Resolution (the note moving down by step to a new chord tone). Suspensions are labeled by the intervals they create with the bass, such as 4-3, 7-6, or 9-8. A Retardation is similar but resolves upward. An Appoggiatura is a specific type of accented NCT approached by leap and resolved by step, usually in the opposite direction. In part-writing, if the figured bass includes a notation like 4-3, you must ensure the voice carrying the 4th stays on that note before stepping down to the 3rd; jumping to the 3rd directly is a common error that ignores the required suspension.
How to Spot and Label Ornamentation
Beyond basic NCTs, you may encounter the Escape Tone (ET), which is approached by step and left by leap in the opposite direction, and the Neighbor Group (or Cambiata), which involves two NCTs—one above and one below the chord tone—before returning to the original note. The Anticipation is a note that arrives early, becoming a chord tone of the next harmony before the other voices move. When analyzing a score for the multiple-choice section, always identify the underlying triad first. Any note not belonging to that triad must be categorized. Use the "Approach/Departure" checklist: Did it leap in? Did it step out? This systematic approach eliminates the guesswork and ensures accuracy in labeling melodic decorations.
Sight-Singing Preparedness Checklist and Strategies
Pre-Singing Scan and Analysis Steps
You are given 75 seconds to prepare each sight-singing melody. Use this time strategically. First, identify the key and the starting pitch. Most melodies start on the tonic, mediant, or dominant. Second, scan the melody for the most difficult interval—usually a leap of a 6th or an accidental indicating a chromatic neighbor tone. Third, identify the cadence at the end of the first phrase (usually a Half Cadence) and the final cadence (usually a PAC). Mentally "hear" the tonic triad (Do-Mi-Sol) to establish your tonal center. Many students fail because they begin singing without a clear sense of the key; spending the first 15 seconds of your prep time humming the scale and the I-IV-V-I progression is a highly effective use of time.
Internal Pulsing and Rhythm Management
Rhythm is often the deciding factor in a sight-singing score. Even if your pitches are slightly off, maintaining a steady internal pulse will keep you in the running for a passing score. Use a silent physical anchor, such as wiggling your toe inside your shoe, to keep the beat. Before you sing, look for complex rhythmic cells like dotted rhythms or triplets. If you encounter a difficult rhythm, do not stop; it is better to sing the wrong pitch on the right beat than to lose the meter entirely. The AP graders look for "flow" and continuity. If you stumble, skip the missed note and jump back in on the next downbeat to demonstrate your rhythmic resilience.
Recovery Tactics for a Lost Tonic
Losing your sense of "Do" is a common anxiety-inducing event during the exam. If you realize you have drifted from the key, do not panic or restart the recording. Instead, look ahead to the next stable anchor point—usually the final note of a phrase or a repeated tonic. Use the intervals you do know to bridge the gap. If you can identify a Perfect 4th or a Major 2nd, use those relative distances to navigate back to the melody's path. The scoring rubric for sight-singing allows for some pitch drift as long as the internal intervals are mostly correct. Maintaining your confidence is key; a hesitant performance with correct pitches often scores lower than a bold performance with minor intonation issues.
Test-Day Execution: Managing Time and Anxiety
Section I and II Time Allocation Tips
The AP Music Theory exam is a marathon of different cognitive tasks. Section I (Multiple Choice) is divided into aural and non-aural parts. In the aural portion, the pace is dictated by the recording, so you must use the pauses between questions to look ahead. In the non-aural portion, you have more control; spend no more than one minute per question. Section II (Free Response) requires intense focus. Allocate your time based on point value: the Part-Writing from Figured Bass and Roman Numeral Realization questions carry the most weight. If you find yourself stuck on a melodic dictation, move on to the next task and return only if time permits. Never leave a part-writing measure blank; even an incomplete realization can earn partial credit for correct Roman numeral identification.
Order of Operations for Free Response
When you begin the Free Response section, follow a strict Order of Operations. For harmonic realization: 1. Provide the Roman numeral analysis based on the figured bass. 2. Map out the soprano line to ensure a good melodic contour with the bass. 3. Check for potential parallel fifths or octaves before filling in the inner voices (Alto and Tenor). 4. Verify that all tendency tones (like the 7th of a V7 chord) resolve correctly. By following this sequence, you catch structural errors before they are "baked into" the four-part texture. This systematic approach reduces the cognitive load and prevents the simple mistakes that occur when trying to juggle voice leading and harmony simultaneously.
Mental Reset Techniques Between Sections
The transition between the dictation and the written analysis can be jarring. Use the short breaks provided to physically stretch and clear your mind of the previous melody. Music theory requires both "ear" and "logic" sectors of the brain; if a dictation went poorly, do not let that frustration bleed into your part-writing. Remind yourself that the exam is designed so that you can miss several points and still achieve a 5. Focus on the task immediately in front of you. Taking three deep breaths between the aural and written sections can help reset your nervous system, allowing you to approach the analytical questions with the precision and calm required for high-level music theory application.