AP Lang Rhetorical Devices List: Core Appeals and Strategies
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos: The Rhetorical Triangle
The fundamental framework for any analysis is the rhetorical triangle, which illustrates the interdependent relationship between the speaker, the audience, and the message. Within this framework, ethos, pathos, logos AP English students must master represent the three primary modes of persuasion. Ethos refers to the establishment of the speaker’s credibility or character. An author might build ethos by citing their professional credentials, using specialized terminology to demonstrate expertise, or adopting a fair-minded tone that acknowledges opposing viewpoints—a technique known as concession.
Logos appeals to the audience’s sense of reason through the use of facts, statistics, and logical syllogisms. In the context of the AP exam, look for inductive or deductive reasoning patterns where the author moves from specific observations to a general conclusion. Finally, pathos targets the audience’s emotions. This is often achieved through vivid imagery or poignant anecdotes designed to elicit sympathy, anger, or pride. On the exam, avoid saying "the author uses pathos"; instead, specify the exact emotion being evoked and explain how that feeling makes the audience more receptive to the author's primary claim.
Common Rhetorical Strategies: Narration, Description, Argumentation
While devices are specific linguistic tools, common rhetorical strategies represent the broader methods of development an author uses to organize their ideas. Narration is the strategy of telling a story or recounting a series of events, often used to humanize an abstract issue. In rhetorical analysis, the exam reader looks for how a narrative arc serves as evidence for a larger argument. Description relies on sensory details to create a mental picture, often establishing the setting or the gravity of a situation before the author delivers a call to action.
Argumentation is the overarching strategy of proving a point through evidence and logic. This often involves exemplification, where a writer provides a series of examples to turn a general idea into a concrete reality. Another critical strategy is comparison and contrast, which highlights the similarities or differences between two subjects to clarify their nature. When writing the rhetorical analysis essay, identifying these macro-level strategies allows you to structure your body paragraphs chronologically, following the author’s "line of reasoning" as required by the AP scoring guidelines.
Connecting Devices to Author's Purpose
The most common pitfall for exam candidates is "feature-hunting"—identifying a device without explaining its function. To earn the Analysis point on the rubric, you must connect the device to the author's purpose. This involves a three-step process: identify the device, describe its immediate effect on the reader, and explain how that effect supports the author’s ultimate goal. For example, if a writer uses a rhetorical question, the effect might be to force the audience to confront a self-evident truth, which in turn supports the purpose of highlighting the absurdity of a specific policy.
Understanding the exigence—the specific event or situation that prompted the writing—is crucial here. A device used in a graduation speech will have a different purpose than the same device used in a political manifesto. You must ask: Why this specific word or structure for this specific audience at this specific moment? If you can answer why an author chose an analogy instead of a direct statement, you are moving toward a sophisticated level of analysis that recognizes rhetoric as a series of intentional, strategic choices.
Figurative Language and Stylistic Devices
In the AP Lang figurative language examples found in most exam passages, metaphors and similes serve as more than mere decoration; they are cognitive tools that help the audience conceptualize complex ideas. A metaphor makes a direct comparison between two seemingly unrelated things, while a simile uses "like" or "as." In a rhetorical context, these devices often transfer the emotional associations of one object onto another. For instance, describing a political movement as a "rising tide" suggests inevitability and power, influencing the audience's perception of its success.
An analogy extends these comparisons further, illustrating a complex process by comparing it to a simpler one. In the AP Lang exam, analogies are frequently used in scientific or philosophical passages to make dense material accessible. When analyzing these, focus on the mapping of the comparison: what specific traits of the familiar object is the author trying to highlight in the unfamiliar one? The goal is usually to create a "lightbulb moment" for the reader, bridging the gap between the known and the unknown to build a more persuasive logical case.
Hyperbole, Understatement, and Irony for Effect
Authors often use shifts in scale or expectation to emphasize a point. Hyperbole involves deliberate exaggeration for emphasis or comic effect. In a persuasive essay, hyperbole can be used to highlight the severity of a problem, making it seem so large that the audience feels compelled to act. Conversely, understatement (or litotes) minimizes the importance of an idea, often to create a sense of irony or to make the author appear restrained and objective. This can be a powerful tool for building ethos, as it avoids the appearance of bias or hysteria.
Irony occurs when there is a discrepancy between expectation and reality. Verbal irony, where the stated meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning, is frequently used in satirical passages to mock an opponent's position. On the AP exam, identifying irony is essential for correctly interpreting the author's tone. If you miss the ironic intent, you may fundamentally misunderstand the author’s argument. Look for shifts in context or overly formal language applied to trivial subjects as clues that the author is employing an ironic perspective to undermine a specific viewpoint.
Personification and Allusion to Add Depth
Personification assigns human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract concepts. This device is often used to make a distant or cold topic feel more relatable or urgent. For example, describing "poverty" as a "thief that steals the future" gives an abstract social issue a sense of agency and malice, which can more effectively provoke an emotional response (pathos) than a list of statistics. In your analysis, explain how giving human traits to a concept changes the audience's moral or emotional relationship to that topic.
Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance. Most allusions in AP Lang passages refer to the Bible, Shakespeare, or Greek mythology, as these provide a shared cultural shorthand. An allusion allows a writer to compress a vast amount of meaning into a single phrase. If a writer refers to a "Trojan horse," they are instantly communicating themes of deception and hidden danger without needing to explain the entire myth. Your task is to identify the source of the allusion and explain what specific connotations the author is importing into their own text.
Syntax and Sentence Structure Techniques
Parallelism, Antithesis, and Juxtaposition
Syntax, or the arrangement of words and phrases, is a powerful but often overlooked component of the rhetorical analysis terms AP Lang students must know. Parallelism involves the use of successive verbal constructions that correspond in grammatical structure, sound, or meaning. This creates a sense of rhythm and balance, making the argument feel more organized and memorable. When a writer uses parallelism, they are often signaling that the ideas being presented are of equal importance, which helps the reader navigate the logical flow of the passage.
Antithesis is a specific type of parallelism where two opposing ideas are placed in a balanced grammatical structure (e.g., "One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind"). This highlights the conflict or contrast between the two ideas, forcing the audience to choose between them. Similarly, juxtaposition places two concepts, characters, or ideas side-by-side to highlight their differences. While antithesis is a structural device, juxtaposition is a conceptual one. In your essay, describe how these contrasts create tension or clarity, driving the reader toward the author's preferred conclusion by making the alternative seem less desirable.
Periodic vs. Loose Sentences for Emphasis
The placement of the main clause in a sentence significantly impacts the delivery of an idea. A periodic sentence withholds the main idea or independent clause until the very end, near the period. This creates a sense of suspense or builds a cumulative argument, as the reader must process all the introductory phrases and dependent clauses before reaching the point. Periodic sentences are often used for formal, high-stakes rhetoric where the author wants to emphasize the gravity or complexity of their conclusion.
In contrast, a loose sentence (or cumulative sentence) presents the main idea at the beginning and then adds a string of modifying phrases or clauses. This mirrors the natural flow of speech and can make the author's tone feel more conversational or contemplative. On the AP exam, analyze how these structural choices affect the "pacing" of the text. A series of periodic sentences might suggest a calculated, forceful argument, while loose sentences might suggest an exploratory or descriptive approach. Identifying these patterns demonstrates a high level of syntactic awareness.
Repetition is one of the most effective ways to ensure an audience remembers a key point. Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences. This creates a rhythmic incantation that builds emotional intensity and emphasizes a specific theme. It is a favorite tool of orators because it provides a predictable structure that an audience can easily follow. When analyzing anaphora, identify the specific word being repeated and explain why that particular concept is the "anchor" of the author's message.
Epistrophe is the counterpart to anaphora, where the repetition occurs at the end of successive clauses. Because the repeated word is the last thing the audience hears, it receives the most emphasis, often functioning as a "hammer" that drives a point home. Other forms of repetition include polysyndeton (the repeated use of conjunctions) and asyndeton (the omission of conjunctions). Polysyndeton can create a sense of overwhelming abundance or exhaustion, while asyndeton creates a sense of speed and urgency. In your analysis, avoid simply stating that the author repeats words; explain how the rhythm created by that repetition mirrors the author's emotional state or the urgency of their message.
Diction and Tone Analysis
Connotative vs. Denotative Language
To understand how to analyze tone and diction, one must first distinguish between the literal and implied meanings of words. Denotation is the dictionary definition of a word, while connotation refers to the emotional or cultural associations that a word carries. For example, the words "house" and "home" have similar denotations, but "home" carries connotations of warmth, security, and family. A writer’s choice of a highly connotative word is a deliberate move to influence the audience's emotional response.
On the AP exam, look for patterns of connotative language, often referred to as a word thread. If a writer consistently uses words associated with "warfare" (e.g., target, ammunition, frontline) to describe a political debate, they are using a martial metaphor to frame the discussion as a zero-sum conflict. When writing your essay, use specific adjectives to describe the diction—such as "militant," "pastoral," or "clinical"—rather than just saying the author uses "strong words." This precision shows the reader that you understand the subtle nuances of the writer’s craft.
The level of formality in a writer’s diction is a primary indicator of their relationship with the audience. Formal diction uses elevated vocabulary and complex sentence structures, establishing a professional or impersonal tone. This is often used to build ethos by demonstrating the writer’s education and seriousness. Informal diction, including colloquialisms or slang, can make the writer seem more relatable and "down-to-earth," which may be more effective for a general audience or when the writer wants to build a sense of community.
Jargon refers to specialized language used by a particular profession or group. While jargon can alienate outsiders, it can also be used rhetorically to establish authority or to speak directly to an "in-group." In an AP Lang passage, if a writer uses legal or scientific jargon, they are likely trying to sound authoritative or are addressing a highly specific audience. Your analysis should consider the rhetorical situation: if the audience is composed of laypeople, the use of jargon might be a strategy to intimidate or to impress them with the speaker’s superior knowledge.
How Word Choice Shapes Tone and Audience Perception
Tone is the author's attitude toward the subject or the audience, and it is created almost entirely through diction and syntax. It is important to remember that tone is not static; it can shift throughout a passage as the author moves from one stage of their argument to the next. For example, a writer might begin with a didactic (instructive) tone to explain a problem and then shift to a hortatory (encouraging/exhorting) tone in the conclusion to spur the audience to action.
When identifying tone, avoid generic words like "positive" or "negative." Instead, use more descriptive terms such as "reverent," "condescending," "wistful," or "facetious." The AP scoring rubric rewards students who can identify these subtle shifts and explain why they occur. A shift in tone often signals a shift in the author’s strategy or a transition to a new point in their line of reasoning. By linking word choice to tone, and tone to purpose, you demonstrate a holistic understanding of how language functions as a tool of persuasion.
Applying Devices in Rhetorical Analysis Essays
Identifying Devices in Prompts and Passages
The first step in a successful rhetorical analysis is a careful reading of the prompt, which often provides essential context about the speaker, audience, and exigence. Use this information to frame your reading of the passage. As you read, annotate the text not just for what the author is saying, but for how they are saying it. Look for the rhetorical triangle in action: how is the speaker establishing their character, and how are they attempting to move the audience?
Because you are under a time limit, focus on the most prominent devices that contribute directly to the author's main argument. Don't worry about finding every single metaphor or instance of alliteration. Instead, look for patterns—such as a recurring motif or a consistent use of antithesis—that define the author's style. If you can identify three or four "big moves" the author makes, you will have more than enough material for a high-scoring essay. Remember, the goal is to explain the mechanics of the persuasion, not to summarize the content.
Structuring Body Paragraphs Around Device Analysis
A strong body paragraph in a rhetorical analysis essay should be organized by the author's ideas or chronological moves, rather than by a single device. A paragraph that only discusses "metaphors" is often weaker than one that discusses how the author "establishes the urgency of the crisis" using a combination of metaphors, hyperbole, and urgent syntax. This approach allows you to show how different devices work together to achieve a single effect.
Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that identifies a specific rhetorical move the author makes. Follow this with concrete evidence from the text (quotes or paraphrases). The bulk of the paragraph should then be dedicated to analysis: explaining how the evidence supports the topic sentence and, ultimately, the author's purpose. Use transition words to show how the author's strategy evolves from the beginning to the middle and finally to the end of the passage, maintaining a clear focus on the line of reasoning.
Avoiding 'Listing' and Focusing on Effect
One of the most frequent comments from AP readers is "too much summary, not enough analysis." To avoid this, you must move beyond the "what" and the "where" to the "how" and the "why." Simply stating that "the author uses anaphora in line 12" is a low-level observation. To elevate your writing, you must explain the rhetorical effect: "By repeating the phrase 'we shall not' at the start of each sentence, the author creates a sense of communal resolve that serves to unify the audience against a common threat."
Always bring your analysis back to the audience. Rhetoric is, by definition, the art of persuasion, which means there is always a target. Ask yourself: How is the audience supposed to feel after reading this? What are they supposed to think? What are they supposed to do? If your essay consistently answers these questions by citing specific linguistic evidence, you will satisfy the requirements for the Evidence and Commentary section of the rubric, which is worth 4 out of the 6 total points.
Practice with Past Exam Passages
Deconstructing Sample Student Responses
Reviewing high-scoring sample essays provided by the College Board is one of the most effective ways to understand what the readers are looking for. Notice how these students integrate quotes seamlessly into their own sentences and how they use precise verbs (e.g., "underscores," "characterizes," "illuminates") to describe the author’s actions. Pay attention to the sophistication point—often awarded for essays that explain the complexities or tensions within a text, such as an author using a humorous tone to address a deeply serious subject.
Compare these high-scoring essays to mid-range samples. Usually, the difference lies in the depth of the commentary. While a mid-range essay might identify a device and give a generic explanation of its effect, a high-scoring essay will connect that device to the specific historical context of the passage or to a subtle shift in the author’s persona. By deconstructing these samples, you can develop a mental template for the level of detail and analytical rigor required for a top score.
Annotating for Multiple, Layered Devices
In high-quality prose, devices rarely exist in isolation; they are often layered on top of one another. For example, a writer might use alliteration within a metaphor that is part of a parallel structure. This layering increases the rhetorical impact of the sentence. When practicing your annotations, try to find these intersections. Recognizing how a writer uses sound (alliteration, assonance) to reinforce a structural choice (parallelism) demonstrates an advanced understanding of the AP Lang rhetorical devices list.
Practice annotating for different "layers" in different colors: use one color for structural devices (syntax), another for figurative language, and a third for appeals (ethos, pathos, logos). This visual representation can help you see which strategies the author relies on most heavily. If the passage is densely packed with imagery, the author is likely leaning on pathos. If it is full of complex, periodic sentences and formal diction, the author is likely prioritizing ethos and logos. This bird's-eye view will help you formulate a stronger thesis statement.
Timed Analysis Drills
The AP Lang exam is as much a test of time management as it is a test of analytical skill. You have 45 minutes to read the passage, plan your essay, and write it. To prepare, conduct timed drills using past exam prompts. Spend the first 10-12 minutes reading and annotating, ensuring you have a clear understanding of the author's purpose and at least three major rhetorical moves. Use the remaining time to write, focusing on maintaining a clear line of reasoning.
During these drills, practice writing "analytical kernels"—short, dense sentences that link a device to an effect. For example: "The author’s use of antithesis highlights the stark contrast between the government’s promises and its actions, thereby undermining its credibility." Developing the ability to generate these insights quickly will prevent you from getting bogged down in summary during the actual exam. Consistency in these drills will build the "rhetorical muscle memory" needed to handle even the most challenging passages with confidence.