AP Bio Ecology Unit Review Questions: Mastering Core Concepts
Interpreting Ecological Data
When approaching an AP Biology ecology practice test, the ability to interpret complex data sets is paramount. The College Board frequently utilizes graphical representations of species distribution, nutrient concentrations, or abiotic factors to assess a student's analytical skills. You must be able to distinguish between independent and dependent variables in a field study context. For instance, if a graph depicts the rate of photosynthesis across varying light intensities, you should identify the saturation point where light is no longer the limiting factor. Furthermore, the exam often requires the application of the Chi-square goodness-of-fit test to determine if observed ecological data significantly deviates from expected distributions. This is common in studies of animal behavior, such as kinesis or taxis, where a null hypothesis assumes a random distribution of organisms across different environmental gradients. Mastery involves not just reading the graph, but explaining the biological mechanism—such as enzyme denaturation or stomatal closure—that causes the observed trend.
Applying Mathematical Models
Mathematical literacy is a cornerstone of the ecology unit. Students are expected to use the AP Biology Equations and Formulas sheet to solve problems involving population growth and energy transfer. In many population ecology AP Bio questions, you will be asked to calculate the rate of change over time. The fundamental formula $dN/dt = B - D$ (where B is births and D is deaths) serves as the starting point, but the exam often pushes further into per capita growth rates. You must understand how to derive $r$ (the intrinsic rate of increase) and apply it to specific time intervals. Another critical area involves the Simpson’s Diversity Index, which provides a quantitative measure of biodiversity based on species richness and evenness. Calculating this index allows ecologists to compare the health of two different communities. On the exam, a lower index value typically suggests a community dominated by one or two species, making it more vulnerable to environmental stressors compared to a high-diversity community with a more robust index score.
Population Ecology Dynamics and Calculations
Analyzing Growth Curves and Carrying Capacity
Population dynamics are governed by the availability of resources and the presence of limiting factors. In an ideal environment with unlimited resources, a population exhibits exponential growth, characterized by a J-shaped curve. This is modeled by the equation $dN/dt = r_{max}N$. However, real-world populations eventually encounter environmental resistance as they approach the carrying capacity (K). This leads to logistic growth, represented by the formula $dN/dt = r_{max}N((K-N)/K)$. Exam questions frequently ask students to predict what happens to the growth rate as N approaches K; as the numerator $(K-N)$ gets smaller, the growth rate slows down, eventually reaching zero when the population size equals the carrying capacity. Understanding the difference between density-dependent factors, such as disease and competition, and density-independent factors, such as natural disasters, is crucial for explaining why a population might fluctuate around or crash below its carrying capacity.
Life History Strategies and Survivorship
Organisms have evolved distinct strategies to maximize fitness, which are often categorized into r-selection and K-selection. r-strategists typically inhabit unstable environments, produce many offspring, and provide little parental care, whereas K-strategists thrive in stable environments near carrying capacity, producing fewer offspring with high energy investment per individual. These strategies are visualized using survivorship curves. A Type I curve (humans) shows low death rates during early and middle life, followed by a steep decline in old age. A Type II curve (birds) shows a constant death rate over the organism's life span. A Type III curve (trees or fish) depicts very high death rates for the young, with the few survivors living a long time. AP questions may ask you to link these curves to reproductive efforts or metabolic costs, requiring an explanation of how energy allocation toward growth versus reproduction influences an organism's position on the curve.
Community Interactions and Ecosystem Structure
Predator-Prey Dynamics and Symbiosis
Community ecology focuses on the interactions between different species and how these relationships shape the ecosystem. Community ecology practice problems often center on the competitive exclusion principle, which states that two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist permanently. This leads to either the extinction of one species or resource partitioning, where species evolve to use different niches. You must also be proficient in identifying symbiotic relationships: mutualism (+/+), commensalism (+/0), and parasitism (+/-). A classic exam scenario involves the removal of a keystone species—an organism that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance. If a keystone predator like a sea otter is removed, the sea urchin population explodes, leading to the destruction of kelp forests and a total collapse of the community structure. Being able to predict these cascading effects is a high-level skill tested in the FRQ section.
Trophic Levels and Food Web Stability
Trophic structures describe the route of energy through an ecosystem. Energy enters most ecosystems as sunlight, which is converted into chemical energy by primary producers (autotrophs) via photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. This energy then moves to primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and tertiary consumers. Ecosystems and energy flow AP questions often require students to calculate the efficiency of this transfer. Generally, only about 10% of the energy at one trophic level is transferred to the next; the rest is lost as heat due to metabolic processes (the Second Law of Thermodynamics). This energy inefficiency limits the length of food chains and explains why top predators require such large territories. Furthermore, you should understand the difference between bottom-up control, where nutrient supply limits the higher levels, and top-down control, where predation limits the lower levels. Disrupting these levels can lead to a trophic cascade, significantly altering the biomass at every stage of the food web.
Energy Flow and Biogeochemical Cycles
Calculating Productivity and Efficiency
The total amount of light energy converted to chemical energy in an ecosystem is known as Gross Primary Productivity (GPP). However, plants must use some of this energy for their own cellular respiration ($R_a$). The remaining energy, which is available to consumers, is the Net Primary Productivity (NPP). The relationship is expressed by the formula $NPP = GPP - R_a$. On the AP exam, you might be given data from a light/dark bottle experiment used to measure dissolved oxygen in an aquatic ecosystem. The change in oxygen in the light bottle represents NPP (photosynthesis minus respiration), while the decrease in the dark bottle represents respiration only. By adding the respiration value to the NPP, you can calculate GPP. Understanding these calculations is vital because NPP sets the "energy budget" for the entire ecosystem. Factors such as temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability (like nitrogen or phosphorus) directly impact NPP, which in turn dictates the biodiversity and biomass an ecosystem can support.
The Water, Carbon, and Nitrogen Cycles
While energy flows through an ecosystem and is eventually lost as heat, matter is recycled through biogeochemical cycles. The carbon cycle is central to current environmental discussions, involving the balance between photosynthesis (which sequesters carbon) and cellular respiration/combustion (which releases it). The nitrogen cycle is particularly complex and frequently tested; it relies heavily on bacteria for nitrogen fixation, converting atmospheric $N_2$ into ammonium ($NH_4^+$) or nitrates ($NO_3^-$) that plants can actually absorb. Without these specialized prokaryotes, nitrogen would remain inaccessible to the biosphere, halting protein and nucleic acid synthesis. The phosphorus cycle is unique because it does not involve a gaseous phase, moving instead through weathering of rocks and uptake by plants. AP questions may ask you to predict the impact of a disruption, such as fertilizer runoff causing eutrophication, where excess nitrogen and phosphorus lead to algal blooms, subsequent oxygen depletion by decomposers, and massive fish kills.
Biodiversity, Conservation, and Human Impact
Measuring and Valuing Biodiversity
Biodiversity is measured at three levels: genetic diversity within a population, species diversity within an ecosystem, and ecosystem diversity across a landscape. High genetic diversity is a prerequisite for evolution and adaptation; populations with low genetic variation are more susceptible to extinction if the environment changes. In the context of conservation biology AP Biology topics, students must understand that biodiversity increases ecosystem resilience. A resilient ecosystem can better withstand and recover from disturbances, such as fires or invasive species. The exam may use the Shannon diversity index or similar metrics to ask you to evaluate which of two habitats is more stable. You should be prepared to explain how "ecosystem services"—such as water purification, pollination, and nutrient cycling—are economically and biologically valuable, and how the loss of a single species can impair these essential functions.
Causes and Consequences of Ecosystem Disruption
Human activities are the primary drivers of current ecosystem disruptions. The "HIPPCO" acronym (Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Population growth, Pollution, Climate change, and Overexploitation) summarizes these threats. Invasive species are a frequent topic; these are non-native organisms that, when introduced to a new area, lack natural predators and outcompete native species for resources, often leading to a decrease in biodiversity. Climate change, driven by the greenhouse effect, is another major focus. Increased $CO_2$ levels trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to rising global temperatures, melting polar ice, and ocean acidification. Ocean acidification occurs when $CO_2$ dissolves in seawater to form carbonic acid, lowering the pH and making it difficult for calcifying organisms (like corals and mollusks) to build their shells. You must be able to link these abiotic changes to biotic consequences, such as the shifting of geographical ranges for various species or the timing of seasonal events like flowering or migration.
Ecology in Laboratory and Field Investigations
Designing Ecological Experiments
Experimental design is a core component of the AP Biology curriculum, often appearing in Question 1 of the FRQ section. When designing an ecological experiment, you must clearly identify the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the control and experimental groups. For example, if testing the effect of a specific pollutant on orchid growth, the null hypothesis would be that the pollutant has no effect on the height of the plants. You must also define your independent variable (the pollutant concentration), dependent variable (plant height), and controlled variables (light, water, soil type). Proper experiments require replication to ensure results are not due to chance. In an ecology context, this might involve using multiple plots or sampling sites. You should also be prepared to describe how to use a quadrat or the mark-and-recapture method to estimate population sizes in the field, including the mathematical assumptions required for these methods to be valid.
Analyzing Case Studies and Real-World Data
The AP exam often presents real-world case studies, such as the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park or the effect of the El Niño Southern Oscillation on Galapagos finch populations. Analyzing these scenarios requires integrating knowledge from across the ecology unit. You might be asked to explain how the reintroduction of a predator led to a change in the physical landscape (a "landscape of fear" altering herbivore behavior, which allows vegetation to regrow). This type of synthesis is what distinguishes high-scoring students. When presented with raw data, always look for the standard error of the mean (SEM). If the error bars of two data points overlap, the difference between them is generally not considered statistically significant. Being able to justify a claim using both biological theory and statistical evidence is the hallmark of a successful AP Biology student, particularly when addressing the multifaceted problems found in the ecology unit.